Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Retention rates at two-year colleges are consistently lower than those at four-year colleges, likely due to the higher proportion of nontraditional students who must manage academic and non-academic responsibilities. To improve student success at two-year colleges, educators have offered more flexible course formats than traditional face-to-face courses. This study compared student retention and academic performance across three course formats: 16-week face-to-face, 16-week online, and 5-week online. This study also investigated how the effects of student and course characteristics on student outcomes varied across the course formats. Multilevel modeling was used to analyze the retention rate and academic performance of 22,280 students attending seven community colleges in the Western United States. Results demonstrated that the 5-week online course format yielded the highest retention rate and academic performance. Furthermore, this course format benefited male students, part-time students, and students in non-STEM courses the most in terms of student retention and academic performance.

Keywords

student retention academic performance online compressed courses multilevel modeling of categorical outcomes community colleges nontraditional students

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adelman

(1999). Answers in the tool box: Academic intensity, attendance patterns, and bachelor's degree attainment. US Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Ali

Khan

R. M. I.

Alouraini

(2023). A comparative study on the impact of online and blended learning. Sage Open, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231154417

Allen

I. E.

Seaman

(2011). Going the distance: Online education in the United States, 2011. Sloan Consortium. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED529948.pdf

Anastasi

J. S.

(2007). Full-semester and abbreviated summer courses: An evaluation of student performance. Teaching of Psychology, 34(1), 19–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00986280709336643

Andrade

M. S.

Alden-Rivers

(2019). Developing a framework for sustainable growth of flexible learning opportunities. Higher Education Pedagogies, 4(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/23752696.2018.1564879

Atchley

Wingenbach

Akers

(2013). Comparison of course completion and student performance through online and traditional courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 14(4), 104–116. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v14i4.1461

Barr

Luo

(2025). HyFlex course design: Outcomes, challenges, and supports for students and instructors. Journal of Computing in Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-025-09452-6

Bates

Kliegl

Vasishth

Baayen

(2015). Parsimonious mixed models. arXiv preprint arXiv:1506.04967.

Beatty

B. J.

(2019). Hybrid-flexible course design. EdTech Books. https://edtechbooks.org/hyflex

10.

Berga

K. A.

Vadnais

Nelson

Johnston

Buro

Olaiya

(2021). Blended learning versus face-to-face learning in an undergraduate nursing health assessment course: A quasi-experimental study. Nurse Education Today, 96, 104622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2020.104622

11.

Broecke

Nicholls

(2007). Ethnicity and degree attainment. Research report RW92. Department for Education and Skills.

12.

Brookshire

R. G.

Palocsay

S. W.

(2005). Factors contributing to the success of undergraduate business students in management science courses. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 3(1), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4609.2005.00054.x

13.

Bryant

Campbell

Kerr

(2003). Impact of web based flexible learning on academic performance in information systems. Journal of Information Systems Education, 14(1), 41–50.

14.

Burridge

A. B.

Mckinney

Bourdeau

G. V.

Lee

M M.

Barnes

Y. M.

(2024). The power of one more course: How different first semester credit loads affect community college student persistence. The Journal of Higher Education, 95(7), 879–916. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2023.2251867

15.

Bursac

Gauss

C. H.

Williams

D. K.

Hosmer

D. W.

(2008). Purposeful selection of variables in logistic regression. Source Code for Biology and Medicine, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1751-0473-3-17

16.

Carman

C. A.

Bartsch

R. A.

(2017). Relationship between course length and graduate student outcome measures. Teaching of Psychology, 44(4), 349–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628317727912

17.

Chen

(2013). STEM Attrition: College Students’ Paths into and out of STEM Fields. Statistical Analysis Report. NCES 2014-001. National Center for Education Statistics.

18.

Chen

(2015). STEM Attrition among high-performing college students: Scope and potential causes. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 5(1), 41–59. https://doi.org/10.3926/jotse.136

19.

Chizmar

J. F.

Walbert

M. S.

(1999). Web-based learning environments guided by principles of good teaching practice. Journal of Economic Education, 30(3), 248–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220489909595985

20.

Crews

Butterfield

(2014). Data for flipped classroom design: Using student feedback to identify the best components from online and face-to-face classes. Higher Education Studies, 4(3), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v4n3p38

21.

Daniel

E. L.

(2000). A review of time-shortened courses across disciplines. College Student Journal, 34(2), 298–308.

22.

Davies

W. M.

(2006). Intensive teaching formats: A review. Issues in Educational Research, 16(1), 1–20.

23.

DeJong

T. L.

Chen

(2023). Utility of a slopes difference test for probing longitudinal multilevel aptitude treatment interactions: a simulation. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1156962

24.

DePriest

Dunagan

MacKewn

Bell

(2025). Attrition indicators among students in introductory physical geology: Traditional vs. online learning. Journal of Educators Online, 22(4), n4.

25.

Ellis

R. A.

(2022). Strategic directions in the what and how of learning and teaching innovation—A fifty-year synopsis. Higher Education, 84(6), 1267–1281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00945-2

26.

Feldman

M. J.

(1993). Factors associated with one-year retention in a community college. Research in Higher Education, 34, 503–512. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00991857

27.

Figlio

D. N.

Rush

Yin

(2010). Is It Live or Is It Internet? Experimental Estimates of the Effects of Online Instruction on Student Learning. NBER Working Paper No. 16089. National Bureau of Economic Research.

28.

Fike

D. S.

Fike

(2008). Predictors of first-year student retention in the community college. Community College Review, 36(2), 68–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091552108320222

29.

Ganesh

Paswan

Sun

(2015). Are face-to-face classes more effective than online classes? An empirical examination. Marketing Education Review, 25(2), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/10528008.2015.1029851

30.

García-Vargas

M. C.

Rizo-Baeza

Cortés-Castell

(2016). Impact of paid work on the academic performance of nursing students. PeerJ, 4, e1838. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1838

31.

Gauthier

Galindo

(2025). Faculty perceptions of community college student retention and persistence. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 27(2), 338–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/15210251231178019

32.

Gilardi

Guglielmetti

(2011). University life of non-traditional students: Engagement styles and impact on attrition. The Journal of Higher Education, 82(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2011.11779084

33.

Gillett-Swan

(2017). The challenges of online learning: Supporting and engaging the isolated learner. Journal of Learning Design, 10(1), 20–30. https://doi.org/10.5204/jld.v9i3.293

34.

Gregory

B. C.

(2022). Developing critical listening”: Educational radio and early media literacy, 1933–1949. Resonance: The Journal of Sound and Culture, 3(3), 309–329. https://doi.org/10.1525/res.2022.3.3.309

35.

Hagedorn

L. S.

(2005). How to define retention: A new look at an old problem. In Seidman

(Ed.), College student retention: Formula for student success (pp. 89–105).

36.

Hicks

W. L.

(2014). Pedagogy in the twenty-first century: An analysis of accelerated courses in criminal justice. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 25(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511253.2013.853091

37.

Horn

(1998). Stopouts or stayouts?: Undergraduates who leave college in their first year. Diane Publishing.

38.

Hox

(2017). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications (3rd ed.). Routledge.

39.

Imran

Fatima

Salem

I. E.

Allil

(2023). Teaching and learning delivery modes in higher education: Looking back to move forward post-COVID-19 era. The International Journal of Management Education, 21(2), 100805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100805

40.

Jacobs

(2008). Ethnicity, gender and degree attainment project: Final report. Higher Education Academy. https://s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets.creode.advancehe-document-manager/documents/ecu/ethnicity-gender-and-degree-attainment-project-final-report_1571753634.pdf

41.

Juszkiewicz

(2017). Trends in community college enrollment and completion data, 2017. American Association of Community Colleges .

42.

Kauder

(2015). History of marginal utility theory. Princeton University Press.

43.

Kentnor

H. E.

(2015). Distance education and the evolution of online learning in the United States. Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, 17(1), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-68123-229-420251014

44.

Kops

W. J.

(2014). Teaching compressed-format courses: Teacher-based best practices. Canadian Journal of University Continuing Education, 40(1). https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/cjuce-rcepu/index.php/cjuce-rcepu/article/view/22198. https://doi.org/10.21225/D5FG7M

45.

Lee

J. J.

Sax

L. J.

Kim

K. A.

Hagedorn

L. S.

(2004). Understanding students’ parental education beyond first-generation status. Community College Review, 32(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/009155210403200101

46.

Lyke

Frank

(2012). Comparison of student learning outcomes in online and traditional classroom environments in a psychology course. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 39(3), 245–250.

47.

Millea

Wills

Elder

Molina

(2018). What matters in college student success? Determinants of college retention and graduation rates. Education, 138(4), 309–322.

48.

Nakajima

M. A.

Dembo

M. H.

Mossler

(2012). Student persistence in community colleges. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 36(8), 591–613. https://doi.org/10.1080/10668920903054931

49.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2021). Digest of education statistics, 2021. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d21/tables/dt21_326.30.asp?current=yes

50.

National Student Clearinghouse Research Center. (2025). Persistence & retention – 2023 national report. National Student Clearinghouse Research Center. https://nscresearchcenter.org/persistence-retention/

51.

Nemetz

P. L.

Eager

W. M.

Limpaphayom

(2017). Comparative effectiveness and student choice for online and face-to-face classwork. Journal of Education for Business, 92(5), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2017.1331990

52.

Nunez

A. M.

(1998). First-generation students: Undergraduates whose parents never enrolled in postsecondary education. Diane Publishing.

53.

Nussli

(2024). Creating a “space in-between”: Learning on the physical–hybrid–virtual continuum. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 52(4), 471–506. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472395241252139

54.

Ong

C. S.

Lai

J. Y.

(2006). Gender differences in perceptions and relationships among dominants of e-learning acceptance. Computers in Human Behavior, 22(5), 816–829.

55.

Richardson

J. T.

(2008). Degree attainment, ethnicity and gender: A literature review. Higher Education Academy.

56.

Roberts

Jackson

Mohr-Schroeder

M. J.

Bush

S. B.

Maiorca

Cavalcanti

Craig Schroeder

Delaney

Putnam

Cremeans

(2018). Students’ perceptions of STEM learning after participating in a summer informal learning experience. International Journal of STEM Education, 5(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-018-0133-4

57.

Romero-Hall

Ripine

(2021). Hybrid flexible instruction: Exploring faculty preparedness. Online Learning, 25(3), 289–312. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v25i3.2426

58.

Sanabria

Penner

Domina

(2020). Failing at remediation? College remedial coursetaking, failure and long-term student outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 61, 459–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-020-09590-z

59.

Sheard

(2009). Hardiness commitment, gender, and age differentiate university academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(1), 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709908X304406

60.

Shehadeh

(2022). Pandemic response: Impact of accelerated English courses on student achievement and withdrawal rates. Summer Academe: A Journal of Higher Education, 15. https://doi.org/10.25894/sa.126

61.

Singell

L. D.

Jr (2004). Come and stay a while: Does financial aid effect retention conditioned on enrollment at a large public university? Economics of Education Review, 23(5), 459–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2003.10.006

62.

Singh

Steele

Singh

(2021). Combining the best of online and face-to-face learning: Hybrid and blended learning approach for COVID-19, post vaccine, & post-pandemic world. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 50(2), 140–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472395211047865

63.

Sithole

Chiyaka

E. T.

McCarthy

Mupinga

D. M.

Bucklein

B. K.

Kibirige

(2017). Student attraction, persistence and retention in STEM programs: Successes and continuing challenges. Higher Education Studies, 7(1), 46–59. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v7n1p46

64.

Soliz

(2025). Improving community college student persistence and degree completion. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12(2), 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/23727322251361761

65.

Stater

(2009). The impact of financial aid on college GPA at three flagship public institutions. American Educational Research Journal, 46(3), 782–815. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831208329903

66.

Stewart

Lim

D. H.

Kim

(2015). Factors influencing college persistence for first-time students. Journal of Developmental Education, 38(3), 12–20.

67.

Thiele

Singleton

Pope

Stanistreet

(2016). Predicting students’ academic performance based on school and socio-demographic characteristics. Studies in Higher Education, 41(8), 1424–1446. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.974528

68.

Tomkin

J. H.

West

(2022). STEM Courses are harder: Evaluating inter-course grading disparities with a calibrated GPA model. International Journal of STEM Education, 9(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00343-1

69.

Urtel

M. G.

(2008). Assessing academic performance between traditional and distance education course formats. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 11(1), 322–330.

70.

Walker

S. E.

(2017). Developing compressed beginning and intermediate algebra courses. Journal of Developmental Education, 40(2), 30–34.

71.

Wladis

Conway

Hachey

A. C.

(2017). Using course-level factors as predictors of online course outcomes: A multi-level analysis at a US urban community college. Studies in Higher Education, 42(1), 184–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1045478

72.

Wladis

Hachey

A. C.

Conway

(2014a). The role of enrollment choice in online education: Course selection rationale and course difficulty as factors affecting retention. Online Learning, 18(3). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1043163.pdf. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v18i3.391

73.

Wladis

Hachey

A. C.

Conway

(2014b). An investigation of course-level factors as predictors of online STEM course outcomes. Computers & Education, 77, 145–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.04.015

74.

Wlodkowski

R. J.

(2003). Accelerated learning in colleges and universities. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2003(97), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.84

75.

Jaggars

S. S.

(2011). The effectiveness of distance education across Virginia’s community colleges: Evidence from introductory college-level math and English courses. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33(3), 360–377. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373711413814

76.

Jaggars

S. S.

(2014). Performance gaps between online and face-to-face courses: Differences across types of students and academic subject areas. The Journal of Higher Education, 85(5), 633–659. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2014.11777343

Course Format Matters: Effects on Student Retention and Academic Performance

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References