This work focuses on the replacement of mineral oils with bio-based waste cooking oils in rubber compounding. Two different waste cooking oils from potatoes and chicken frying process were analyzed by means of chemical and rheological tests to evaluate the chemical composition, the oxidative stability and the viscosity. Waste oils have been introduced in elastomeric compounds as substitute for typical processing aids (i.e. lubricants). Cure kinetics of rubber compounds was studied by rheological characterization. Mechanical properties of vulcanized samples were determined by means of tensile tests, hardness tests and dynamic mechanical analysis. The waste oils showed a rheological behavior very similar to the mineral oils conventionally employed in rubber manufacturing leading to almost the same processability of the resulting compound. The waste oils did not significantly affect the vulcanization kinetics of the rubber compound, as expected for conventional lubricants. Waste cooking oils and mineral oil show analogous influence on mechanical properties of cured compounds. At increasing oil content, the elongation at break and the tensile strength increased whereas the values of Elastic Modulus at 100% strain, the Storage Modulus and Shore A Hardness decreased with respect to the oil-free sample. These results are very promising, confirming the possibility to replace the mineral oils, in a good practice of circular economy.
LimperA. Mixing of rubber compounds. Munich: Hanser publishers, 2012, pp. 173–236.
2.
UlfahIMFidyaningsihRRahayuS, et al.Influence of carbon black and silica filler on the rheological and mechanical properties of natural rubber compound. Proc Chem2015; 16: 258–264.
3.
SavetlanaSSukmanaISaputraFA. The effect of carbon black loading and structure on tensile property of natural rubber composite. InIOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng2017; 223(1): 012009.
4.
DasguptaSAgrawalSLBandyopadhyayS, et al.Eco-friendly processing oils: a new tool to achieve the improved mileage in tyre tread. Polym Test2009; 28: 251–263.
5.
RolandC. Reinforcement of Elastomers. In: Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2016, pp. 1–10.
6.
KaràsekLSumitaM. Characterization of dispersion state of filler and polymer-filler interactions in rubber-carbon black composites. J Mater Sci1996; 31:281–289.
7.
WypychG. Plasticizers use and selection for specific polymers. In: Handbook of Plasticizers. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 2017, pp. 333–483.
8.
ZanchetAGarciaPSNunesRCR, et al.Sustainable natural rubber compounds: naphthenic oil exchange for another alternative from renewable source. Int Ref J Eng Sci2016; 4: 10–19.
9.
RodgersB. Rubber compounding: chemistry and applications. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, 2004.
10.
ChokanandsombatYSirisinhaC. Influence of aromatic content in rubber processing oils on viscoelastic behaviour and mechanical properties of styrenebutadiene-rubber for Tyre tread applications. Polym Polym Compos2014; 22: 599–606.
11.
Directive 2005/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the council. Off J Eur Union, 2005.
12.
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2007) Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the european parliament and of the council of 18 December 2006. Off J Eur Comm 3–280.
13.
DasguptaSAgrawalSLBandyopadhyayS, et al.Characterization of eco-friendly processing aids for rubber compound. Polym Test2007; 26: 489–500.
14.
SovtićNPredragKSBeraOJ, et al.A review of environmentally friendly rubber production using different vegetable oils. Polym Eng Sci2020; 60: 1097–1117.
15.
JosephRAlexRVinodVS, et al.Studies on epoxidized rubber seed oil as plasticizer for acrylonitrile butadiene rubber. J Appl Polym Sci2003; 89: 668–673.
16.
DasguptaSAgrawalSLBandyopadhyayS, et al.Characterisation of eco-friendly processing aids for rubber compound: part II. Polym Test2008; 27: 277–283.
17.
MeierMARMetzgerJOSchubertUS. Plant oil renewable resources as green alternatives in polymer science. Chem Soc Rev2007; 36: 1788.
18.
BhattRShahDPatelKC, et al.PHA–rubber blends: synthesis, characterization and biodegradation. Bioresour Technol2008; 99: 4615–4620.
19.
JosephRAlexRMadhusoodananKN, et al.Use of epoxidized rubber seed oil as a coupling agent and a plasticizer in silica-filled natural rubber compounds. J Appl Polym Sci2004; 92: 3531–3536.
20.
RajuPNandananVSunilKNK. A study on the use of coconut oil as plasticiser in natural rubber compounds. J Rubber Res2007; 10: 1–16.
21.
RajuPNandananVSunilKNK. A study on the use of castor oil as plasticizer in natural rubber compounds. Prog Rubber, Plast Recycl Technol2007; 23: 169–180.
22.
IsmailHAnuarH. Palm oil fatty acid as an activator in carbon black filled natural rubber compounds: dynamic properties, curing characteristics, reversion and fatigue studies. Polym Test2000; 19: 349–359.
23.
PetrovićZSIonescuMMilićJ, et al.Soybean oil plasticizers as replacement of petroleum oil in rubber. Rubber Chem Technol2013; 86: 233–249.
24.
JayewardhanaWGDPereraGMEdirisingheDG, et al.Study on natural oils as alternative processing aids and activators in carbon black filled natural rubber. J Natl Sci Found Sri Lanka2009; 37: 187–193.
25.
IsmailHSalmiahITsukaharaY. Palm oil fatty acid as an activator in carbon black filled natural rubber compounds: effect of vulcanization system. Polym Int1997; 44: 523–529.
26.
WangZHanYHuangZ, et al.Plasticization effect of hydrogenated transgenic soybean oil on nitrile-butadiene rubber. J Appl Polym Sci2014; 131: 2–7.
27.
Nurul AyunieMZRomliAZWahabMA, et al.Effect of epoxidized palm oils loading on the crosslink density and rebound resilience characteristic of SBR vulcanizates. Adv Mater Res2013; 748: 206–210.
28.
XuHFanTYeN, et al.Plasticization effect of bio-based plasticizers from soybean oil for tire tread rubber. Polymers (Basel)2020; 12: 1–10.
29.
LeeDJSongSH. Investigation of epoxidized palm oils as green processing AIDS and activators in rubber composites. Int J Polym Sci2019; 2019: 2152408.
30.
Farfan-CabreraLIGallardo-HernándezEAPérez-GonzálezJ. Compatibility study of common sealing elastomers with a biolubricant (Jatropha oil). Tribol Int2017; 116: 1–8.
31.
KulkarniMGDalaiAK. Waste cooking oil—an economic source for biodiesel: a review. Ind Eng Chem Res2006; 45: 2901–2913.
32.
Emissioni | Ambiente | Azienda | McDonald’s Italia.
33.
PhanANPhanTM. Biodiesel production from waste cooking oils. Fuel2008; 87: 3490–3496.
34.
KawentarWABudimanA. Synthesis of biodiesel from second-used cooking oil. Energy Proc2013; 32: 190–199.
35.
Abdul RaqeebM. Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. J Chem Pharm Res2015; 7: 670–681.
36.
RahmanMTHaininMRBakarWAWA. Use of waste cooking oil, tire rubber powder and palm oil fuel ash in partial replacement of bitumen. Constr Build Mater2017; 150: 95–104.
37.
KhanJHussainAHaqF, et al.Performance evaluation of modified bitumen with replaced percentage of waste cooking oil & tire rubber with bagasse ash as modifier. Civil Eng J2019; 5: 587.
38.
OldhamDRajibAPhaniK, et al.Transesterification of waste cooking oil to produce a sustainable rejuvenator for aged asphalt. Resour Conserv Recycl2020; 168: 1–23.
39.
Minimize Divert & Recycle McDonald’s Global Waste. McDonald’s.
40.
GuillénMDCaboN. Usefulness of the frequency data of the Fourier transform infrared spectra to evaluate the degree of oxidation of edible oils. J Agric Food Chem1999; 47: 709–719.
41.
GuptaSWangWSVanapalliSA. Microfluidic viscometers for shear rheology of complex fluids and biofluids. Biomicrofluidics2016; 10: 043402.
42.
UllahZBustamMManZ. Characterization of waste palm cooking oil for biodiesel production. Int J Chem Eng Appl2014; 5: 134–137.
43.
RohmanAChe ManYB. Quantification and classification of corn and sunflower oils as adulterants in olive oil using chemometrics and FTIR spectra. Sci World J2012; 2012: 250795.
44.
FurlanPYWetzelPJohnsonS, et al.Investigating the oxidation of biodiesel from used vegetable oil by ftir spectroscopy: used vegetable oil biodiesel oxidation study by FTIR. Spectrosc Lett2010; 43: 580–585.
45.
NaghshinehMMirhosseiniH. Effects of frying condition on physicochemical properties of palm olein-olive oil blends. J Food, Agric Environ2010; 8: 175–178.
46.
VelascoJMarmesatSBordeauxO, et al.Formation and evolution of monoepoxy fatty acids in thermoxidized olive and sunflower oils and quantitation in used frying oils from restaurants and fried-food outlets. J Agric Food Chem2004; 52: 4438–4443.
47.
FasinaOOColleyZ. Viscosity and specific heat of vegetable oils as a function of temperature: 35°C to 180°C. Int J Food Prop2008; 11: 738–746.
48.
GellingIRMorrisonNJ. Sulfur vulcanization and oxidative aging of epoxidized natural rubber. Rubber Chem Technol1985; 58: 243–257.
49.
Nations F and AO of UN (1999) Standard for Named Vegetable Oils Codex Stan 210-1999.
50.
SantosJCOSantosIMGSouzaAG. Effect of heating and cooling on rheological parameters of edible vegetable oils. J Food Eng2005; 67: 401–405.
51.
KřivskýJ. Processing Oils for tyre manufacturers.
52.
MES (mild extracted solvate).
53.
BjörnASegura DePMonjaL, et al.Rheological characterization. Biogas.
54.
ErtongSSchümmerP. On the rheological properties of rubber compounds containing different carbon black concentrations. In: Third European Rheology Conference and Golden Jubilee Meeting of the British Society of Rheology. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1990, pp. 153–155.
55.
SuW-F. Principles of Polymer Design and Synthesis, 2013.
56.
MorescoSScartonCTGiovanelaM, et al.Natural rubber compositions with the partial/total replacement of carbon black/naphthenic oil by renewable additives: rice husk ash and cashew nut oil. J Appl Polym Sci2020; 137: 1–10.
57.
AkçakaleN and Bülbül. The effect of mica powder and wollastonite fillings on the mechanical properties of NR/SBR type elastomer compounds. J Rubber Res2017; 20: 157–167.
58.
SridharanHChandaJGhoshP, et al.Mixing time influence on fatigue crack growth in a carbon black-filled natural rubber vulcanizate. Prog Rubber Plast Recycl Technol2020; 36: 115–130.
59.
PetchkaewASahakaroKDierkesWK, et al.Petroleum-based safe process oils in NR and NR/SBR blends: part III. Effects of oil types and contents on the properties of carbon black filled compounds. KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe2015; 68: 20–29.
60.
PechuraiWChiangtaWTharuenP. Effect of vegetable oils as processing aids in SBR compounds. Macromol Symp2015; 354: 191–196.
61.
FröhlichJNiedermeierWLuginslandHD. The effect of filler-filler and filler-elastomer interaction on rubber reinforcement. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf2005; 36: 449–460.
62.
BijarimiMZulkafliHBegMD. Mechanical properties of industrial tyre rubber compounds. J Appl Sci2010; 10: 1345–1348.
63.
BragagliaMCacciottiICherubiniV, et al.Influence of organic modified silica coatings on the tribological properties of elastomeric compounds. Wear2019; 434–435: 202987.
