Because both corruption and trafficking are very complex phenomena, a multivariate approach was used to analyse the relationship between corruption and trafficking. The results of the analysis show that, in Brazil, corruption is a causal factor in human trafficking. The paper offers a number of suggestions to help researchers and policy makers better understand where, how and when corruption facilitates trafficking in human beings in order to combat both crimes more effectively.
CGU [Controladoria-Geral da União] ( 2003). Programa de Fiscalização a partir de Sorteios Públicos. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.cgu.gov.br/CGU/index.aspandhttp://www.cgu.gov.br/Imprensa/Noticias/2003/noticia06903.asp .
6.
CPMI [Comissão Parlamentar Mista de Inquérito - Joint Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry] (2004). Câmara dos Deputados e Senado Federal no Brazil internal report.
7.
European Commission (2001). Trafficking in women. The misery behind the fantasy: from poverty to sex slavery. A comprehensive European strategy. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/news/8mars_en.htm#a1 .
8.
Figueiredo, D. and Hazeu, M. ( 2006). Migração e tráfico de seres humanos para Suriname & Holanda, Projeto Jepiara - Programa de enfrentamento do tráfico de seres humanos e exploração sexual em Belém . URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.faor.org.br/CD/download/4_trafico_seres_humanos.pdf .
9.
Hausman, J.A. ( 1978). Specification tests in econometrics. Econometrica46, 1251-71.
10.
Heidenheimer, A.J. ( 2004). Disjunctions between corruption and democracy? A qualitative exploration. Crime, Law & Social Change42, 99-109.
11.
Hinton, M.S. ( 2005). A distant reality: Democratic policing in Argentina and Brazil. Criminal Justice5, 75-100.
12.
Hojman, D.E. ( 2004). Inequality, unemployment and crime in LatinAmerican cities. Crime, Law & Social Change41, 33-51.
13.
Hughes, D.M. ( 1999). Pimps and predators on the internet: Globalizing the sexual exploitation of women and children. Coalition against Trafficking in Women (CATW).
14.
IPEA [Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada - Brazilian Institute of Applied Economic Research].Ministério do Planejamento, Orçamento e Gestão. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.ipea.gov.br.
15.
Klitgaard, R., MacLean-Abaroa, R. and Parris, H.L. ( 1998). A practical approach to dealing with municipal malfeasance. Working Paper No. 7, UNDP/UNCHS/World Bank-UMP. First printing , May 1996.
16.
Laczko, F. ( 2005). Data and research on human trafficking. International Migration43, 5-16.
17.
Lambsdorff, J. ( 2001). Background paper to the 2001 Corruption Perceptions Index . Framework document, Transparency International and Göttingen University, June.
18.
Lambsdorff, J.G. ( 2005). The methodology of the 2005 Corruption Perceptions Index . Transparency International and University of Passau. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2005/methodology .
19.
Lezertua, M. ( 2003). Opportunities for corruption in the trafficking of human beings. Paper presented at Transparency International’s 11th International Anti-Corruption Conference, Seoul, Korea, 25-28 May.
20.
Lyday, C.B. ( 2001). The shadow market in human beings: An anti-corruption perspective. Paper presented at Transparency International’s 10th International Anti-Corruption Conference, Prague, Czech Republic,7-10 October.
21.
Mahmoud, T.O. and Trebesch, C. ( 2009). The economic drivers of human trafficking: Micro-evidence from five Eastern European countries. Working Paper No. 1480, Kiel Institute for the World Economy.
22.
Morris, S.D. ( 2004). Corruption in Latin America: An empirical overview. SECOLAS Annals36, 74-92.
23.
PACO [Programme against Corruption and Organised Crime in South-Eastern Europe] (2002). Trafficking in human beings and corruption. Council of Europe. Report on the regional seminar, Portoroz, Slovenia, 19-22 June.
24.
PESTRAF (2002). Pesquisa sobre tráfico de mulheres, crianças e adolescentes para fins de exploração sexual comercial no Brasil [Study on trafficking in women, children and adolescents for commercial sexual exploitation in Brazil]. National Report, edited by M. L. Leal and M. F. Leal.Brasília: CECRIA .
25.
Phinney, A. ( 2001). Trafficking of women and children for sexual exploitation in the Americas. The Inter-American Commission of Women, Organization of American States. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.paho.org/english/hdp/hdw/TraffickingPaper.pdf.
26.
Ribando, C. ( 2005). Trafficking in persons in Latin America and the Caribbean. CRS Report for Congress. Congressional Research Service , The Library of Congress. URL (accessed 9 September 2009 ): http://www.oas.org/atip/Latin%20America/CRS%20Dec%202005.pdf .
27.
Savona, E.U. and William, P. ( 1996). The United Nations and transnational organized crime . Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis .
28.
Shelley, L.I. ( 2003). Human trafficking: Transnational crime and links with terrorism. Testimony before the US House Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on International Terrorism, Nonproliferation and Human Rights.
29.
Transparency International (2001). Corruption Perceptions Index 2001. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2001 .
30.
Transparency International (2006). Corruption Perceptions Index 2006. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2006 .
31.
Tsutsumi, K. and Honda, S. ( 2005). OAS Rapid Assessment Report: Trafficking in persons from the Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) region to Japan. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.oas.org/atip/PDFs/Rapid%20Assessment%20(English).pdf .
32.
Tyldum, G. and Brunovskis, A. ( 2005). Describing the unobserved: Methodological challenges in empirical studies on human trafficking. International Migration43, 17-34.
33.
United Nations Commission on Human Rights ( 2000). Integration of the Human Rights of Women and the Gender Perspective: Violence against Women. Economic and Social Council, E/ CN.4/2000/68, 29 February.
34.
United Nations Convention against Corruption ( 2003). URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/convention_corruption/signing/Convention-e.pdf .
35.
United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000). URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.uncjin.org/Documents/Conventions/dcatoc/final_documents_2/convention_%20traff_eng.pdf .
36.
UNODC [United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime] ( 2006). Trafficking in Persons: Global Patterns. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/HT-globalpatterns-en.pdf .
37.
US Department of State (2008). Trafficking in Persons Report 2008. Washington, DC: US Department of State. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2008/.
38.
Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000. United States Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Public Law 106-386-Oct. 28, 2000. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/10492.pdf.
39.
Yaffee, R. ( 2003). A primer for panel data analysis. Social Sciences, Statistics and Mapping Group of ITS’ Academic Computing Services, New York University. URL (accessed 9 September 2009): http://www.nyu.edu/its/pubs/connect/fall03/yaffee_primer.html.
