Child participation in the digital era: Perspectives of children,mothers,and teachers on photographing and photo-sharing in preschool classrooms

Abstract

In the current digital era, the taking and disseminating of photographs and videos of children has become a prevalent practice. The purpose of this study is to provide insight into the perspectives of preschool children, their mothers, and teachers regarding the photographing and sharing of children’s photos. Twelve 5-year-old children, their mothers (12), and their teachers (12) in northwestern parts of Turkey were taken into consideration in this study. Data were analyzed through descriptive analysis. The findings reveal that mothers and teachers believed children had limited awareness about being photographed and having their images shared due to their young age, and they underlined that they did not consider it necessary to obtain permission from children. However, children’s statements about being photographed and having their photos shared showed that, contrary to what adults thought, they were aware of this issue and were concerned about the negative consequences they might face if their photos were shared. The findings emphasize children’s need for child-centered practices in preschool classrooms and reveal the ways in which adults’ perspectives on this matter run counter to child-centered practices.

Introduction

School environments, where children spend a significant portion of their daily lives, present numerous barriers to child participation due to their hierarchical nature (Cockburn, 2010: 306; Hart, 2009: 16; Lansdown, 2005: 59). Particularly in early childhood, teachers’ widespread belief that young children lack the “experience” and “cognitive maturity” to make decisions about themselves is considered one of the most significant barriers to the realization of children’s participation rights (Lansdown, 2005; Moran-Ellis and Tisdall, 2019; Sheridan and Samuelsson, 2001). This belief in the “incapable” child leads to the assumption that adults do not need children’s opinions because children cannot adequately evaluate matters concerning themselves. This assumption positions children as passive recipients who simply comply with what they are told in all settings (Moran-Ellis and Tisdall, 2019; Sheridan and Samuelsson, 2001; Smith, 2002; Sorin, 2005). As a result, a power imbalance emerges in favor of teachers, especially in the field of early childhood education. Educators tend to prioritize tasks such as socializing children, managing the learning environment, and preparing them for school rather than actively fostering child participation (Bennett, 2007).

Research on child participation in the preschool period indicates that children’s participation in the daily flow of school activities-such as eating, circle time, deciding on the content of activity processes, and pedagogical documentation-is low (Chicken and Tyrie, 2023; Correia et al., 2020; Emilson and Johansson, 2013; Knauf, 2017; Koran and Avcı, 2017; Lewis et al., 2019; Pettersson, 2015; Sivertsen and Bjørgen, 2025; Sivertsen and Moe, 2022). For example, it has been determined that children’s views are not sought regarding the activities, photographs, and videos used in pedagogical documentation processes, which are considered an important element of strengthening participation and democracy in the preschool period (Ghirotto and Mazzoni, 2013; Pettersson, 2015; Picchio et al., 2014; Rintakorpi and Reunamo, 2017).

The framework shows that the desire to document classroom activities, share them with families, and use them for profile-raising purposes has led to the frequent photographing and videotaping of preschool children on a daily basis (Biberman-Shalev et al., 2024; Meishar-Tal et al., 2022). Photographs and videos are clearly an essential part of any documentation processes; the widespread adoption of smartphones means that these visual materials are also used more regularly in family communication and parental involvement activities (Alaçam, 2024; Biberman-Shalev et al., 2024; Golan and Albulescu, 2020).

In many countries, parent WhatsApp groups have become a common platform for sharing children’s photographs to keep parents informed and enhance parental engagement. Consequently, this has resulted in a higher number of photographs being taken in educational settings (Alaçam, 2024; Biberman-Shalev et al., 2024; Dan and Simon, 2021; Tuncer, 2021; Wasserman and Zwebner, 2017). However, beyond these intended uses, images captured in school settings are also utilized as content for the social media accounts of both schools and teachers, raising ethical and privacy concerns in the context of the digital age (Bessant, 2024; Cino and Vandini, 2020; Restiglian et al., 2023; Shelton et al., 2020).

In Turkey, where this study was conducted, these concerns have also led to certain legal obligations (Ak et al., 2022; Kaya et al., 2024; Kiziltaş, 2023). Circular No. 2975829, 2017–12 on “Use of Social Media in Schools” was published in 2017, by the Ministry of National Education, in reference to the relevant articles the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations, 1989), and the Law on the Protection of Personal Data. The circular states that the online or social media sharing of students’ photographs, videos, or audio recordings is considered unlawful when it is carried out “in violation of the law,” for example where personal data are processed or disclosed without a legal basis, and that in such cases legal action will be taken. Specifically, it instructs school administrators to inform staff and students that sharing any audio, written, visual or video records related to individuals on the internet or other digital/print media “in an unlawful manner” is contrary to the Constitution, international conventions and the Basic Law of National Education, and that such acts constitute criminal offenses under the Turkish Penal Code. Furthermore, it highlights the necessity of obtaining consent from the relevant individuals (Turkish Ministry of National Education, 2017). However, the circular identifies these individuals as the parents or legal guardians of the children, without addressing the role or agency of the children themselves in the consent process.

Notwithstanding this circular, recent studies conducted in Turkey have shown that children’s photographs are still widely shared on teachers’ personal pages and schools’ social media accounts. This highlights a concerning lack of awareness among both parents and educators about the potential consequences of this practice (Ak et al., 2022; Kaya et al., 2024; Kiziltaş, 2023). These results are significant in demonstrating how frequently children’s photographs are taken and shared in educational settings. International literature also indicates growing concerns regarding children’s digital footprints, so this problem is not unique to Turkey (Buchanan et al., 2019; Cino and Vandini, 2020; Davis and Yi, 2022). According to Cino and Vandini (2020), research on photography of children and sharing on social media has focused on adult responsibilities, with little interest in the perspective of children themselves or their preferences about online privacy. In our literature review, we found no studies that address preschoolers’ views on being photographed and their dissemination. In the present study, moving from concerns about the current situation and its effects on children, we aim to affirm preschool children’s right to be taken seriously in the process of being photographed. In order to achieve this, we sampled insights from the children themselves as well as from their mothers and teachers, who are key stakeholders in this matter. By incorporating the perspectives of all parties involved, we aim to present comprehensive insight into the process of photographing children in preschool settings.

Method

Research design

This study was designed as a case study, which is one of the qualitative research methodologies, as it allows in-depth understanding of the viewpoints of multiple participants in a particular setting (such as situation, event, action, or process; Creswell, 2014). In this study, photographing children in the educational setting was considered as a single case; while the viewpoints of the children, their mothers, and their teachers regarding the case were examined as units of analysis.

Participants

Nonprobability sampling was involved in this study. Participants were selected through convenience/self-selection sampling, which is dependent on accessibility and voluntariness (Creswell, 2014; Merriam and Tisdell, 2015). Accordingly, the participants for the research were a total of 36 individuals, including 12 preschool children aged 5 years (six girls, six boys), their 12 mothers, and their 12 teachers.

Ethical considerations

Prior to initiating the research, ethical approval was obtained from the ethics committee of the university where the researchers were associated (application number: PR0467R01). Subsequently, additional approval was secured from the Provincial Directorate of National Education. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary. Initially, consent was obtained from the children’s teachers. Subsequently, each volunteer teacher shared a text explaining the purpose of the research in the class WhatsApp group. Volunteer mothers from each teacher’s class contacted the researchers and were included in the study, and their informed consent was obtained. Following this, the child’s assent was also sought. The initial interviews were conducted in person with the children following the completion of the assent process, after which interviews were conducted with their mothers and teachers.

The first step in the child assent process was the teacher introducing the child to Ceren, who is of the researchers of this study in the classroom. The teacher explained to the child that the researcher was conducting a study on photographing in classrooms, that the child could participate in the interview if they wished, but that participation was not mandatory. Three children of volunteer mothers who did not agree to participate in the study were approached with respect, and other children were invited to participate. Children who agreed to participate were taken to a suitable empty room in the school. As an icebreaker, the researcher introduced a one-to-one game called “Which Dog?,” similar to “Guess Who,” and played it individually with each child. The researcher asked each child whether they wanted to play the game, and all participating children agreed. Children were told that they could play the game as long as they wished and that the interview would begin when they were ready. Therefore, play continued until the children voluntarily chose to end the game and proceed to the interview. After the game ended, the researcher introduced the child assent form, explained the study again, and reminded them that they could end the interview at any time. The voluntary participation of children who agreed to participate in the study was ensured by asking them to draw a picture of their choice on the assent form.

To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, the real names of the participating children were replaced with pseudonyms chosen by the children themselves. Additionally, the teachers and mothers were also assigned pseudonyms selected by the children (Beren’s mother, Beren’s teacher).

Data collection

A semi-structured interview form was employed as the primary data collection tool in this study. A total of 36 participants – 12 preschool children aged 5, their 12 mothers, and their 12 teachers – were interviewed one-to-one to collect data. Ceren conducted in-person interviews with the children, their teachers, and six mothers, while the remaining six via online platforms.

The children were informed about the study and asked for their own assent to participate after the parents and teachers had completed the informed consent process. Following the icebreaker activity, a semi-structured interview form was used to ask the children questions such as: “Whether their photographs were taken at school, Who took their photographs, Why their photographs were taken, How they felt about someone else taking their photographs.” After an initial dialog about the children’s daily activities at school, the mothers and teachers were asked the same set of questions.

Data analysis

All interviews (with children, their mothers, and their teachers) were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim by Ceren without any changes. Due to the characteristics of the dataset, descriptive analysis was chosen for this study. Descriptive reporting was selected because it aims to balance description and interpretation while presenting the emotions, ideas, needs and experiences of each three participant groups in our study through brief and multiple direct quotations embedded within the narrative. The two authors worked together to conduct the analysis, through an inductive and comparative process which progressed from coding to categories/themes (Merriam and Tisdell, 2015). Qualitative data analysis software (MAXQDA) was used for organizing, coding, and retrieving the data.

Findings

The findings obtained from the interviews with children, their mothers, and their teachers are categorized under the following headings: “Current Situation Regarding Taking Photographs, Purpose of Taking Photographs, Permission Processes for Taking Photographs, Emotions and Thoughts Regarding Taking Photographs, and Opinions on Sharing Photographs.”

Current situation regarding taking photographs

The children, their mothers and their teachers were asked when and why the photographs were taken and who takes them, in order to obtain information about the current situation.

While examining the current practices of taking photographs in the classroom, participants stated that teachers were primarily responsible for taking the photographs. For instance, Burcu, one of the participant children, stated:

Our teacher takes photos sometimes.

Similarly, Arif’s teacher confirmed this by stating:

I take the children’s photos myself.

Children mentioned that their photographs were mostly taken during classroom activities and special occasions. For example, Ceylan noted:

Our teacher takes photos during the activities we do.

Burcu’s mother also highlighted that children were photographed during classroom activities, stating:

The teacher takes pictures when they are painting, when they are in a rush to play.

When asked about the frequency of taking photographs, participants generally stated that it takes place “sometimes” or “not very often.” For instance, Vahit’s mother indicated that photographs were not taken frequently:

Our teacher takes pictures sometimes, maybe once a month.

This perspective was further supported by Vahit’s teacher, who explained:

If it’s not an activity that I need to manage, I sometimes take pictures and share them with the families, but I don’t have time to take pictures of every activity I do.

In the Current Situation Regarding Taking Photographs, both children and mothers stated that their photographs were taken by teachers in the school settings. Teachers also confirmed that they took photographs of children on a regular basis. Children highlighted that their photos were primarily taken during activities, while mothers and teachers pointed out that photos were typically taken during special occasions and events. Therefore, the responses from all three groups regarding the current situation were consistent, showing a common understanding of the practice. These results are consistent with earlier studies showing that teachers regularly take pictures of children during activities and special occasions in preschool settings (Ak et al., 2022; Kaya et al., 2024).

Purpose of taking photographs

The following categories surfaced when participants were asked why they were taking pictures about the purpose of taking photographs: “Informing the Family, Recording Memories, Sharing.” Preschool classroom photos are taken mainly to inform families, according to mothers and teachers. Mothers expect to be informed as explained by Melisa’s mother:

I think the reason for taking photos at school is to show the parents what’s happening.

Although families have certain expectations regarding the activities in the classroom, as noted by the teachers, they also mentioned that they face difficult challenges to fulfill what is being expected. Caner’s teacher shared her view on this issue as follows:

Parents need to know what their children are doing at school, so they can keep track of it. Parents also have expectations in this regard.

Similarly, the following statement by Melisa’s teacher exemplifies how teachers take photographs based on parents’ requests, yet face challenges in doing so:

We have to take photos because the parents are very eager. . . Since I am the only teacher in the classroom, it is very difficult to both manage the class and take photos.

Another stated purpose for taking photographs is that they serve as memories. This notion was expressed by all three participant groups. For example, Burcu, one of the children, emphasized that photographs are taken for the purpose of remembering:

I think our teacher wants to record our days. She might be taking them to remember them later.

Almost all children mentioned that the photographs would serve as memories, which appears to be linked to the fact that teachers and mothers frequently emphasized the lasting value of photographs during the persuasion process. An example can be seen in the statement of Arif’s mother:

I see them as memories. I want them to be taken so that when we look back in the future, we can remember, ‘look, you did this in kindergarten.’

Gülücük’s teacher also emphasized her own expectations as a mother and the importance of photographs as memories, noting that she reflected these maternal expectations in her teaching practices:

I am also a mother, and I feel happy when my daughter’s teacher takes and sends her photos; they remain as memories. I do the same for the mothers.

Teachers considered the photographs taken during classroom activities as both a way to inform families and content for their personal social media, viewing them as their own. Kamil’s teacher explained:

The games and materials in the classroom are my own, and I take photos of the children showing their hands the most to share with my colleagues.

The Purpose of Taking Photographs heading revealed that one of the main reasons for taking photographs was to inform the family about their children. Mothers stated that photographs were taken to provide information about their children and to help understand their children’s emotional states as they were curious about what their children were doing in the classroom. Teachers also acknowledged that parents had an expectation to be informed through these photographs. These findings align with previous research that emphasizes the role of photographs in parent-teacher communication (e.g. Cino and Vandini, 2020; Dan and Simon, 2021). Teachers, mothers and children all seem to share the same desire to capture memories with pictures.

Permission processes when taking photos

The participants were asked if they thought that the children should be asked for their permission. Most of the children said that the teachers do not get permission. Some of the teachers mentioned that they had not thought about this issue before, but they would do so in the future.

In all three groups, they said that they did not ask permission from children before taking their photos. It is understood from the children’s responses that they highlight the authority of the teacher, while also expressing their belief as they should be asked for permission. For instance, Kamil, one of the participating children, shared the following, which shows both the process and the children’s awareness from their point of view:

Teachers don’t ask permission, of course. . . But permission should be asked. I would be very upset if they forgot to ask permission.

Mothers also emphasized their view as children’s permission was not sought, and it was rather the adults who should be asked for permission, and as adults that permission was asked from the families. For example, Ceylan’s mother stated that children’s permission was not obtained:

I don’t think permission is taken from the children one-on-one. Permission is already taken from the parents.

Kamil’s mother, on the other hand, stated that it was not necessary to ask permission. In her opinion classroom is the teacher’s own space:

Since the classroom is the teacher’s own space, I don’t think it is necessary (to ask permission)

Teachers, on the other hand, said they did not ask for permission because the children were too young. They did not think that it was logical to ask permission from children that young. Moreover, teachers were in fact surprised when they were asked about asking permission from children, as shown in the conversation below:

Researcher: So, do you think you need to get permission from the children when their photos are taken?

Gülücük’s teacher: From the children?

Researcher: Yes, from the children.

Gülücük’s teacher: Well, they’re very young, so I don’t think I could get a clear answer from them.

These results show that some mothers and teachers did not think it was necessary to ask children for permission, which shows how hard it can be to recognize and respect children’s rights. The reason of this may also be about the ongoing cultural practices in Turkey. Participants who said they did not need to get the children’s permission added that parental permission was sufficient. Both parents and teachers reported that consent for photographing children was obtained from parents at the beginning of the school year. As previously mentioned, according to the directive on sharing videos, audio recordings, and photographs of children prepared by the Turkish Ministry of National Education (2017), it is required to get consent from the relevant party but does not explicitly state the child’s consent. This regulatory gap likely leads schools to prioritize parental permission while neglecting children’s agency. Consequently, the statements of all participants indicate that children are excluded from decisions regarding their own images. Bessant (2024) also emphasized the perception that parental permission is sufficient in consent processes for sharing children’s photographs on schools’ social media accounts and discussed this within the context of children’s rights.

Emotions and thoughts regarding taking photographs of children

Under this heading, the emotions of all three groups regarding taking photographs of children were sought. The children were asked how they felt when they did not want to be photographed. Since the children should be entitled to choose if and when to be photographed, special emphasis is given to this matter.

When examining the children’s feelings and thoughts about being photographed, there were children who expressed that they enjoyed it and felt happy, as well as those who stated that they disliked it and felt uncomfortable. The children who said they liked having their photos taken generally mentioned that they were uncomfortable with the situation lasting for too long or with being photographed frequently. For example, the following statements from Ada, illustrate her discomfort with excessive photography:

On my birthday, for example, I wanted to be photographed, but they take a lot of pictures. They take one picture three times, and I get very bored.

Although Ada herself expressed feeling bored when her photos were taken consecutively, Ada’s mother thought Ada was used to being photographed, and shared the following opinion:

My child is used to being photographed. So, I don’t think it’s a problem for her.

Children who expressed that they did not enjoy having their photos taken often indicated limits on who could take their photographs. For instance, Beren stated that only her family members were allowed to take her pictures:

It makes me feel bad. Because nobody else can take pictures. Only my mom, dad, sister, and brother.

When considering the views of the mothers regarding their children being photographed, many believed that there was no harm in having their children’s photographs taken, thinking that the children were not fully aware of the situation and would not feel uncomfortable. However, parents’ assumption is contradictory to the awareness of the children as they do not want strangers taking photographs. For example, Vahit, one of the participants, stated:

I don’t like it when it’s someone I don’t know. If it was a teacher, I wouldn’t say anything. Teachers take pictures for a reason.

Children said that they would not like it if people they did not know took their photos. However, they did not object to teachers taking their photos for a specific reason. When teachers were asked about their opinions on the children’s feelings, they did not indicate the children’s awareness of being photographed and portrayed different reactions from the children. For example, Ceylan’s teacher stated that the children were very happy to have their photos taken:

They are very happy. They pose immediately when they see the phone.

On the contrary, some teachers observed that the children became bored and that some felt uncomfortable being photographed. Hüseyin’s teacher, for example, stated:

Let’s get in line. Let’s take pictures one by one in front of the board; children get bored.

Teachers acknowledged that they were aware of children often getting bored during the photography sessions. Moreover, while they did not thing that it was an absolutely necessary practice to take children’s photos, they stated that parents’ expectations were the main reason for doing so. For instance, Veteriner’s teacher shared the following view on this matter:

We only do it because the parents want us to. I don’t see it as necessary; the children are very bored, and it is a highly distracting task for us.

The children often expressed a preference for having their photographs taken during times of fun, play, and activity. This choice was consistent across all three groups. However, there were significant differences in the responses about the cases when children did not want to be photographed. In such situations, children often mentioned the authority of the teacher, even when they were not enthusiastic about being photographed. For example, Veteriner’s statements suggest compliance with the teacher’s instructions:

Sometimes I don’t want the teacher to take pictures during the activity, but the teacher tells me to do certain things. She says, ‘Put your hands on the table like this,’ and I do.

Mothers, on the other hand, indicated that it is the mood of the children at that time affecting if they want to be photographed or not. For example, Caner’s mother explained that her child might not want to be photographed if he was feeling upset:

If he is unhappy in that moment or upset about something, he may not want to be photographed.

Teachers, however, tended to relate the uneasiness of being photographed to children’s temperament. Veteriner’s teacher elaborated on this perspective:

I have children who never want to be photographed. I tell them, ‘We are taking a class picture, and you should be in it.’ . . . but they still don’t want to. That’s just their temperament.

When the children were asked what they did once they did not want their photographs taken, they said that they verbally expressed their refusal and engaged in behaviors such as walking away, covering their faces, or crying. For instance, Kamil shared his strategy of crying:

I cry. That’s how I found the solution. Then they don’t take the picture.

This statement contradicts the assumption that young children are not aware of such interactions and stresses how important it is to take their perspectives seriously.

Mothers, too, reported that their children would verbally express their reluctance. However, some mothers noted that their children might not totally understand the situation. For example, Burcu’s mother indicated that her child might not always be aware of being photographed:

In my opinion, she is not very aware. She may not realize that her photo is being taken at that moment.

Akin to children’s verbal expressions, teachers observed that the children would either verbally decline or display non-verbal signals such as covering their faces or showing visible discomfort. For example, Kamil’s teacher explained that when a child expressed unwillingness, the child would step aside:

They tell me, ‘Teacher, I don’t want to have my picture taken’, and they step aside. We do not force them.

Although teachers emphasized that they did not force children to be photographed when they refused, the children said that teachers insisted on taking the pictures. For example, Burcu indicated that they were pressured:

I feel awkward taking a photo when I’m forced. I feel embarrassed and angry. He can force me to ‘come and keep it as a memory.’ I don’t like this at all.

In contrast, mothers believed that teachers did not force children to be photographed. Burcu’s mother, for instance, expressed confidence in the teacher’s understanding:

Our teacher is understanding about this; she doesn’t insist. She understands and accepts their feelings.

In line with the perspectives of mothers, teachers also claimed that they did not insist on taking photographs but would rather resort to explanations. Contrary to Burcu’s perception of being forced, Burcu’s teacher clarified her approach:

When she doesn’t want to, we don’t force her. I explain, ‘Your mom might want to see this; it will be a memory,’ but if she doesn’t want to be photographed, I don’t force her.

While some children said that they enjoyed being photographed, others mentioned feeling uncomfortable, bored, or unhappy. On the other hand, adults thought that children were used to and pleased with being photographed. They said there was no specific time when children did not want to be photographed. However, children reported that even when they did not want to be photographed, adults often insisted or pressured them. Mothers mostly believed that teachers did not force their children to take photos. Some teachers agreed with this belief and said that they resorted to “explain and persuade” rather than forcing children, whereas others explicitly denied forcing them. This viewpoint may signify more extensive difficulties concerning children’s capacity to articulate refusal. The discrepancy between how children and adults see things shows the need for greater efforts by adults to understand and acknowledge how children feel and perceive in such concepts. It is important to note that some of the children in our study said they used strategies like crying when they did not want their pictures taken. The literature underscores that children utilize diverse strategies to assert their rights and counter adults’ (teachers’) directives in everyday interactions and negotiations, akin to this finding (Markström and Halldén, 2009; Sairanen et al., 2022). For instance, a study on preschoolers’ strategies for exercising their participation rights found that they used strategies like silence avoidance, negotiation, collaboration, and partial compliance (Markström and Halldén, 2009). The findings of our research align with those in the literature.

Opinions on sharing photographs

Participants were asked if the feelings and thoughts of children were taken into account, moreover the information and permission processes with regards to the children was also investigated. For example, Caner articulated the following perspective on the sharing process:

Our teacher sends them to my mom and dad.

When asked about the use of their pictures taken in the classroom, children expressed that they are mostly shared with their families. Caner’s statement below suggests that some teachers or families may have communicated about how the photos are shared. In addition to sharing the photos with families, two children reported that their photos were also posted on their teachers’ personal social media accounts. However, other children mentioned that they were unaware of where their photos were shared. For example, Arif expressed the following:

I don’t know. I think they are shared on WhatsApp for people to see, sometimes on WhatsApp with friends, sometimes on Facebook, et cetera.

Mothers also confirmed that pictures were posted on the teacher’s personal social media accounts or on the school’s website, not only were shared with themselves only. For instance, Caner’s mother expressed:

He might be sharing it on the school’s website or Instagram page. The teacher also sends them to us.

Teachers gave similar answers to those of the mothers, while also emphasizing that they obtained consent from the families before sharing the photos. Teachers also indicated that when sharing children’s photos in class WhatsApp groups, they made sure to cover the faces of children whose parents had not given consent, or they did send the photo directly to the family instead. For instance, Ceylan’s teacher explained:

It is shared on the school website. If the parent indicates ‘no’ on the permission slip, we cover that child’s face.

Under the Sharing heading, children expressed that their photographs were taken to be shared with their families and other teachers. The fact that children in our study indicated an understanding of the purpose behind the photographs as “sharing them with their families” is encouraging, since it suggests that they are aware of why they were photographed. In line with the children’s perspectives, both parents and teachers reported that photographs were shared with families via WhatsApp, either individually or as part of a class group. Existing research supports the regular use of the WhatsApp application in conducting parent and teacher communications within preschool settings. Hence, it is often regarded as an effective tool for interaction (Balcı and Tezel Şahin, 2018; Dan and Simon, 2021; Golan and Albulescu, 2020; Wasserman and Zwebner, 2017). In our study, both parents and teachers used similar expressions regarding the use of WhatsApp for sharing photographs.

When children were asked about their emotions about their photos being shared online, the children indicated that they would feel uncomfortable if their photos were shared with strangers. The following statements from Kamil highlight this concern:

If they send it to someone I don’t know, I feel like it was stolen. I’m afraid that thieves will take me. Teachers and mothers and the mothers of familiar children can share it.

Teachers believed that children, due to their young age, were unaware of the sharing of photographs. For example, Burcu’s teacher shared the following perspective:

The age group is young. I don’t think they are aware of this issue.

When asked whether the children were informed about the sharing of photos taken at school, the children indicated that they were not informed in any way or form. For instance, Veteriner expressed that he was not given information, but he thought that it is important to be informed:

They don’t give me information, they should. Because I would like to know if they are going to send it to my mom.

Mothers also stated that they did not believe the children were informed about photo sharing, as they felt the children were too young to understand the practice and reason. For example, Caner’s mother shared her perspective:

I don’t think they were given information because it is not possible at their age.

Similarly, teachers emphasized that, due to the children’s young age, they would not be able to understand the concept of photo sharing. For example, Veteriner’s teacher stated:

They won’t understand much. I think it is enough to get permission from the parents.

However, some teachers indicated that they became aware of the importance of informing children about the sharing of their photos through the research questions. For example, Hüseyin’s teacher said:

When I take a photo, I could explain that it will be placed in your file. I realized it now, because sometimes they are surprised when they see what I took.

With regards to the process of obtaining permission to share a child’s photograph, both children and mothers emphasized that permission should be obtained. Burcu, for instance, shared her opinion as:

Yes, I think they should. If it is not asked, we do not know who it is shared with, and people can get nervous.

Some mothers also acknowledged that, although they did not believe children would object to their photos being shared, it was still important to raise awareness on this issue. Hüseyin’s mother expressed:

They should. I don’t think any child would say no, don’t share, because they are not that aware. But it is necessary for them to have awareness about themselves.

Teachers also underscored the importance of age and developmental competencies in this context. For example, Gülücük’s teacher remarked:

They are very young. So, I am not sure if they are aware of this issue.

Discussion

In our study, the current situation regarding the photographing and sharing of children’s photographs in preschool classrooms was sought to be understood by consulting the views of children, mothers, and teachers, who are the stakeholders of this issue. Hart (1992: 9) describes children as “undoubtedly the most photographed and the least listened to members of society.” It is noteworthy that, despite more than 30 years having passed since this statement, our findings point to a similar pattern in the Turkish context. In our study, it was observed that children, who are the subjects of the photographs, were not informed about why the photographs were taken, what would be done with them, and to whom they would be sent.

Hayes (2024) emphasizes that adults make decisions about the processes children will experience based on their beliefs about children and their expectations of them. Considering that mothers and teachers emphasized that parental permission was “sufficient” in the consent processes for photographing and sharing children’s photographs and frequently stated that children could not be aware due to their young age, it appears to be related to the dominance of the “incompetent child” perception in the beliefs about childhood held by the adult participants in our study. The literature indicates that teachers’ perspectives and beliefs about children guide participation practices in the classroom (Bae, 2009; Frödén and Tellgren, 2024; Hudson, 2012). In the Turkish context where the research was conducted, it has been determined that the traditional perspective is dominant and preschool teachers’ belief in the nature of the child is low (see Kunt and Avci, 2023). Although the statements of mothers and teachers point to the “incompetent child” perspective, the children in our study held different views from adults regarding the photographing and sharing of their own photographs. Children were uncomfortable with having their images taken and the possibility of them being shared with strangers. This situation suggests that preschool teachers do not adequately understand the feelings and thoughts of the children with whom they spend most of the day, and that they do not hear “children’s voices.”

For “children’s voices” to be heard, adults need to focus on children’s emotions, beliefs, thoughts, wishes, and different forms of expression (Murray, 2019). It should be remembered that “children’s voices” include not only their speech but also non-verbal forms of communication, as emphasized in the Reggio Emilia approach as the “hundred languages of children” (Harris and Manatakis, 2013; Lawrence, 2022). Considering the reactions of children in our study, such as “covering their faces,” “running away,” and “crying” when they did not want their photographs taken, the adults in our study appear to be overlooking children’s “non-verbal” forms of communication. Therefore, support for teachers to focus on child participation and children’s voices becomes more important. Both in-service training for teachers working in the field and course content in teacher education programs should be strengthened in this regard.

It is emphasized that a significant cultural change is required at every level of the system to create children’s right to be heard in education (Lansdown et al., 2014). In addition to empowering teachers, the planning and implementation of legal regulations and monitoring activities regarding the realization of children’s participation rights is critical. Especially considering that there is no legal requirement to obtain consent from children in the legislation regarding the sharing of children’s photographs in the Turkish context where the research was conducted, it is clear that policies need to be developed regarding children. Although the existing literature has examined teachers’ practices of sharing children’s photographs (Ak et al., 2022; Bessant, 2024; Buchanan et al., 2019; Kaya et al., 2024; Kiziltaş, 2023; Shelton et al., 2020), it is thought that there is a significant gap in researching children’s perspectives on this issue. Considering that children’s feelings and thoughts on this issue are often overlooked, it is important to prioritize their voices in discussions about photo-sharing practices. The discrepancy between adults’ assumptions and children’s actual experiences underscores the need for further research and greater awareness regarding children’s rights and consent in the digital age.