Understanding the cultural value systems of nations is a key factor in anticipating the behaviour of business managers and employees in a specific business environment. Many research studies have acknowledged the impact of culture on communication across nations and its impact on business operations, however no study has attempted to measure and quantify the cultural orientations of people originating from one nation, but working in two different national settings. This study adopted Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's framework to examine cultural dimensions of a total of 580 Indian respondents comprising two groups: 429 Indian natives living and working in India and 151 Indian migrants living and working in the USA. It initially compares the cultural orientations of the total population of each of the two groups and then examines cultural differences in the same based on demographic characteristics consisting of occupation, gender, age, and level of education. The study found significant cultural value differences between the two groups on both levels of analysis. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed in detail.
Une analyse comparée des orientations de valeur culturelle des Indiens et des Indiens migrant aux Etats-Unis (Pawan S Budhwar, Habte Woldu & Emmanuel Ogbonna) Comprendre les systèmes de valeurs culturelles des nations est l'un des facteurs clefs pour anticiper les comportement des cadres et des employés dans des environnements spécifiques. De nombreuses études reconnaissent l'impact de la culture sur la communication entre pays et son impact sur les opérations commerciales ; aucune étude, cependant, n'a essayé de mesurer et de quantifier les orientations culturelles des personnes provenant d'un pays unique mais travaillant dans deux structures différentes. Cette étude adopte le cadre de Kluckhohn et Strodtbeck's (1965) en vue d'examiner les dimensions culturelles de 580 répondants indiens se composant de deux groupes : 429 sont des natifs indiens vivant et travaillant en Inde et 151 sont des travailleurs immigrés vivant et travaillant aux Etats-Unis. L'étude compare tout d'abord les orientations culturelles de la population totale de chacun des deux groupes puis examine les différences culturelles sur la base des caractéristiques démographiques (occupation, sexe, âge et niveau d'éducation). L'étude met à jour des différences de valeur culturelle significatives entre les deux groupes quelque soit le niveau d'analyse. Les implications théoriques et pratiques de ces résultats sont étudiés dans le détail.
Academy of Management Executive (2001) May Special Issue.
2.
Academy of Management Journal (2000) Special Research Forum on Emerging Economies, 43(3).
3.
Adler, N., (1993) `An International Perspective on the Barriers to the Advancement of Women Managers', Applied Psychology: An International Review42(4): 289-300.
4.
Adler, N. (2002) International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior . Cincinnati, OH: South-Western College Publishing.
5.
Adler, N., Doktor, R. and Redding, G.S. (1986) `From the Atlantic to the Pacific Century: Cross-cultural Management Reviewed', Journal of Management12: 295-318.
6.
Adler, N. and Izraeli, D. (1994) Competitive Frontiers: Women Managers in a Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
7.
Anakwe, U., Magid, I. and Anandarajan, M. (2000) `Management Practices across Cultures: Role of Support in Technology Usage', Journal of International Business Studies31: 653-66.
8.
Andolsek, D.M. and Stebe, J. (2004) `Multinational Perspective on Work Values and Commitment' , International Journal of Cross Cultural Management4(2): 181-209.
9.
Aycan, A. (1997) ` Acculturation of Expatriate Managers: A Process Model of Adjustment and Performance ', in Z. Aycan (ed.) Expatriate Management: Theory and Research, pp. 1-40. Greenwich, CT: Jai Press.
10.
Aycan, Z., Al-Hamadi, A.B., Davis, A. and Budhwar, P. (2007) `Cultural Orientations and Preference for HRM Policies and Practices: The Case of Oman', International Journal of Human Resource Management18: 11-32.
11.
Aycan, Z., Kanungo, R.N., Mendonco, M., Yu, K., Deller, J., Stahl, G. et al. (2000) `Impact of Culture on Human Resource Management Practices: A Ten-country Comparison', Applied Psychology: An International Review49(1): 192-221.
12.
Baliga, B.R. and Santalainen, T.J. (2006) `Transformation of State-owned Enterprises in Estonia and India: An Examination of the Relative Influences of Cultural Variations', Journal of International Management12(2): 140-57.
13.
BBC News (2006) `Global Migrants Reach 191 Million', available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5054214.stm?headline=Global~migrants~reach~..., accessed on 8 June 2006.
14.
Bennett, R.H. (1999) `The Relative Effects of Situational Practices and Culturally Influenced Values/Beliefs on Work Attitudes', International Journal of Commerce and Management9(1/2): 84-102.
15.
Berry, J.W. (1997) `Immigration, Acculturation and Adaptation', Applied Psychology: An International Review46: 5-68.
16.
Bhagat, R.S. (2006) `Megatrends in World Cultures and Globalization: Introduction to the Special Issue', Journal of International Management12(2): 137-9.
17.
Black, J.S. (1990) `Locus of Control, Social Support, Stress and Adjustment in International Transfers', Asia Pacific Journal of Management7(1): 1-29.
18.
Black, J.S. and Gregersen, H.B. (1991) `The Other Half of the Picture: Antecedents of Spouse Cultural Adjustments', Journal of International Business Studies22(3): 461-77.
19.
Black, J.S. and Mendenhall, M. (1990) `Cross Cultural Training Effectiveness: A Review and a Theoretical Framework of Future Research', Academy of Management Review15(1): 113-36.
20.
Budhwar, P. (2000) `Indian and British Personnel Specialists' Understanding of the Dynamics of Their Function: An Empirical Study', International Business Review9(6): 727-53.
21.
Budhwar, P. (2001) `Doing Business in India', Thunderbird International Business Review43: 549-68.
22.
Budhwar, P. and Debrah, Y. (2001) `Rethinking Comparative and Cross National Human Resource Management Research', The International Journal of Human Resource Management12(3): 497-515.
23.
Budhwar, P. and Debrah, Y. (2004) `Introduction: HRM in Developing Countries', in P. Budhwar and Y. Debrah (eds) HRM in Developing Countries, pp. 1-15. London : Routledge.
24.
Budhwar, P., Luthar, H. and Bhatnagar, J. (2006) `Dynamics of HRM Systems in BPOs Operating in India ', Journal of Labor ResearchXXVII(3): 339-60.
25.
Budhwar, P. and Mellahi, K. (2006) `Introduction: HRM in the Middle-East Context' , in P. Budhwar and K. Mellahi (eds) Managing Human Resources in the Middle-East , pp. 1-19. London: Routledge.
26.
Budhwar, P., Reeves, L.D. and Farrell, P. (2000) `Life Goals as a Function of Social Class and Child Rearing Practices: A Study of India', International Journal of Intercultural Relations24: 227-45.
27.
Budhwar, P., Saini, D. and Bhatnagar, J. (2005) `Women in Management in the New Economic Environment: The Case of India', Asia Pacific Business Review11(2): 179-93.
28.
Budhwar, P. and Sparrow, P. (1998) `Factors Determining Cross-national Human Resource Management Practices: A Study of India and Britain', Management International Review38(Special Issue 2): 105-21.
29.
Budhwar, P. and Sparrow, P. (2002) `Strategic HRM through the Cultural Looking Glass: Mapping Cognitions of British and Indian HRM Managers', Organization Studies23: 599-638.
30.
Caligiuri, P.M. and Cascio, W.F. (1998) `Can We Send Her There? Maximizing the Success of Western Women on Global Assignments', International Journal of Human Resource Management10(2): 163-79.
31.
Carl, D., Gupta, V. and Javidan, M. (2004) `Power Distance', in R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman and V. Gupta (eds) Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The Globe Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
32.
Cavusgil, S.T. and Das, A. (1997) `Methodological Issues in Empirical Crosscultural Research: A Survey of the Management Literature and a Framework', Management International Review37: 71-96.
33.
Chen, J.-M. (2001) Inside Chinese Business: A Guide for Managers Worldwide. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
34.
Columbia Journal of World Business (1994) Spring Special Issue.
35.
Cox , T. (1991) ` The Multicultural Organization', Academy of Management Executive (May): 34-47.
36.
Datt, R. and Sundaram, K.P.H. (2004) Indian Economy. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company Ltd.
37.
Debrah, Y. and Budhwar, P. (2004) `HRM Challenges in the Asia-Pacific: Agenda for Future Research and Policy' , in P. Budhwar (ed.) Managing Human Resources in Asia-Pacific, pp. 269-79. London: Routledge.
38.
Dickson, M.W., BeShears, R.S. and Gupta, V. (2004) `Culture Influence on Organizational Leadership' , in R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan , P.W. Dorfman and V. Gupta (eds) Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The Globe Study of 62 Societies. London : Sage.
39.
DiMaggio, P. and Powell, W. (1983) `The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields', American Sociological Review42: 113-23.
40.
Dorfman, P.W. and House, R.J. (2004) `Culture Influence on Organizational Leadership' , in R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan , P.W. Dorfman and V. Gupta (eds) Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The Globe Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
41.
Dowling, P.J., Welch, D.E. and Schuler, R.S. (1999) International Human Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context. New York: South-Western Publishing.
42.
Employee Relations (2007) Special Issue on People Management in the Indian Sub-continent.
43.
Ferrardo, G.P. (2005) The Cultural Dimensions of International Business . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson /Prentice Hall.
44.
Francesco, A.M. and Gold, B.A. (2004) International Organization Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson/ Prentice Hall.
45.
Garg, P. and Parikh, I. (1986) `Managers and Corporate Cultures: The Case of Indian Organizations', Management International Review26: 50-62.
46.
Gilbert, G., Collins, R. and Brenner, R. (1991) `Age and Leadership Effectiveness: From the Preferences of the Follower', International Journal of Human Resource Management2: 187-96.
47.
Hall, E. (1976) Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Press.
48.
Harvey, M. and Wiese, D. (1998) `The Dual Career Couple: Female Expatriates and Male Trailing Spouses', Thunderbird International Business Review40(4): 359-88.
49.
Hill, C. (2001) International Business. New York and London: Irwin/ McGraw-Hill.
50.
Hofstede, G. (1980) Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51.
Hofstede, G. (1983) `The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practices and Theories', Journal of International Business Studies (Fall): 82-6.
52.
Hofstede, G. (1991) Culture and Organizations: Software of the Mind . London: McGraw-Hil.
53.
Hofstede, G. (1993) `Cultural Constraints in Management Theories', Academy of Management Executive7(1): 81-94.
54.
Hossen, D. and Gustavsson, P. (1995) `Competition by Effective Management of Cultural Diversity', International Studies of Management and Organization22(4): 81-92.
55.
House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W. and Gupta, V. (eds) (2004) Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The Globe Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
56.
Huang, L. and Harris, M. (1973) `Conformity in Chinese and Americans: A Field Experiment' , Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology4: 427-34.
57.
Husain, A.S. (1992) The National Culture of India. New Delhi: National Book Trust.
58.
International Journal of Human Resource Management (2007) Special Issue on Human Resource Management in the Middle-East, 8(1).
59.
Journal of International Business Studies (2001) Symposium on The Impact of Developing Economies and Economies in Transition on the Future of International Business, 32(1).
60.
Journal of International Management (2006) Special Issue on Megatrends in World Cultures and Globalization, 12(2).
61.
Kakar, S. (1971) `Authority Pattern and Subordinate Behaviours in Indian Organization', Administrative Science Quarterly16: 298-307.
62.
Katz, H. and Darbishire, O. (2001) `Converging Divergences: World Changes in Employment Systems', Industrial and Labour Relations Review54: 681-716.
63.
Kluckhohn, F. and Strodtbeck, F.L. (1961) Variations in Value Orientations . New York: Greenwood Press.
64.
Konopaske, R. and Ivanecevich, J.M. (2004) Global Management and Organizational Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill /Irwin.
65.
Koslowski, M., Sagie, A. and Stashevsky, S. (2002) `Introduction: Cultural Relativism and Universalism in Organizational Behaviors', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management2(2): 131-5.
66.
Kwantes, C.T. and Boglarsky, C.A. (2004) `Do Occupational Groups Vary in Expressed Organizational Culture Preferences? A Study of Six Occupations in the United States', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management4(3): 335-54.
67.
Lamb, J. (2000) `Recruiters Turn to India for IT Expertise as Skills Crisis Bites', People Management, August.
68.
Laurent, A. (1983) `The Cultural Diversity of Western Conceptions of Management', International Studies of Management and Organization13: 75-96.
69.
Leary, M.R. and Kowalski, R.M. (1990) `Impression Management: A Literature Review and Two-component Model', Psychological Bulletin107: 34-47.
70.
Leung, K. (2006) `The Rise of East Asia: Implications for Research on Cultural Variations and Globalization', Journal of International Management12(2): 235-41.
71.
Marchese, M. (2001) `Matching Management Practices to National Culture in India, Mexico, Poland and the US', Academy of Management Executive15(2): 130-2.
72.
Markoczy, L. (2000) `National Culture and Strategic Change in Belief Formation', Journal of International Business Studies31: 427-42.
73.
Maslow, A. (1943) `A Theory of Human Motivation', Psychology Review (July): 370-96.
74.
Maznevski, M.L., DiStephano, J.J., Gomez, C.B., Noorderhaven, N.G. and Wu, P. (2002) `Cultural Dimensions at the Individual Level of Analysis: The Cultural Orientations Framework', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management2: 275-96.
75.
Maznevski, M.L., DiStephano, J.J. and Nason, S. (1995) Cultural Perspectives Questionnaire. London, ON and Charlottesville, VA: The University of Western Ontario and The University of Virginia.
76.
Maznevski, M.L. and Peterson, M.F. (1997) `Societal Values, Social Interpretation and Multinational Teams', in C. Granrose and S. Oskamp (eds) Cross-cultural Work Groups . London: Sage.
77.
Mellahi, K. and Guermat, C. (2004) `Does Age Matter? An Empirical Examination of the Effect of Age on Managerial Values and Practices in India', Journal of World Business39(2): 199-215.
78.
Menon, T.M. (2004) `Introduction to ISSWOV Special Section: Culture's Consequences for 21st Century Research and Practice', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management4(2): 135-40.
79.
Morrison, T. (1994) Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands: How to Do Business in Sixty Countries. Holbrook, MA: B. Adams.
80.
Newman, K. and Nolen, S. (1996) `Culture and Congruence: The Fit between Management Practices and National Culture', Journal of International Business Studies (Fourth Quarter): 753-79.
81.
Nicholls, C.E., Rothstein, M.G. and Bourne, A. (2002) `Predicting Expatriate Work Attitudes: The Impact of Cognitive Closure and Adjustment Competencies', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management2(3): 297-320.
82.
Nyambegera, S.M., Sparrow, P. and Daniels, K. (2000) `The Impact of Cultural Value Orientations on Individual HRM Preferences in Developing Countries: Lessons from Kenyan Organisations' , International Journal of Human Resource Management11(4): 639-63.
83.
Paik, Y. and Vance, C.M. (2001) `Evidence of Back-house Selection Bias against American Female Expatriates: Comparing the Perceptions of U.S., German, Mexican, and Korean Managers', Women in Management Review17(2): 179-93.
84.
Parsons, T. and Shils, E.A. (1951) Toward a General Theory of Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
85.
Posthuma, R.A., Joplin, J.R. and Maertz, C.P. (2005) `Comparing the Validity of Turnover Predictors in the United States and Mexico', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management5(2): 165-80.
86.
Ralston, D.A., Egri, C., Stewart, S., Terpstra, R. and Kaicheng, Y. (1999) `Doing Business in the 21st Century with the New Generation of Chinese Managers: A Study of Generational Shifts in Work Values in China', Journal of International Business Studies (Summer): 415-33.
87.
Ralston, D.A., Holt, D.H., Terpstra, R.H. and Yu, K.C. (1997) `The Impact of National Culture and Economic Ideology on Managerial Work Values: A Study of the United States, Russia, Japan, and China', Journal of International Business Studies28(1): 177-207.
88.
Sahay, S. and Walsham, G. (1997) `Social Structure and Managerial Agency in India' , Organization Studies18: 415-44.
89.
Saini, D. and Budhwar, P. (2008) `Managing the Human Resource in Indian SMEs: The Role of Indigenous Realities', Journal of World Business (forthcoming).
90.
Schein, E. (1985) Organizational Culture and Leadership. London: Jossey-Bass.
91.
Schneider, S.C. and Barsoux, J.-L. (2003) Managing across Cultures. London: Prentice Hall.
92.
Schuler, R.S., Budhwar, P. and Florkowski, G.W. (2002) `International Human Resource Management: Review and Critique', International Journal of Management Reviews4(1): 41-70.
93.
Schwartz, S.H. (1994) `Beyond Individualism/Collectivism: New Dimensions of Values', in U. Kim, H.C. Triandis , C. Kagitcibasi, S.C. Choi and G. Yoon (eds) Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Application and Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
94.
Schwartz, S.H. and Bilsky, W. (1990) `Toward a Theory of the Universal Content and Structure of Values: Extensions and Cross-cultural Replications', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology58(5): 878-91.
95.
Selmer, J. and Leung, A.S.M. (2003) `Personal Characteristics of Female vs. Male Business Expatriates', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management3(2): 195-212.
96.
Seth, J.N. (2006) `Clash of Cultures or Fusion of Cultures? Implications for International Business', Journal of International Management12(2): 218-21.
97.
Sharma, I.J. (1984) `The Culture Context of Indian Managers', Management and Labour Studies9(2): 72-80.
98.
Shenkar, O. (2004) `One More Time: International Business in a Global Economy', Journal of International Business Studies35: 161-71.
99.
Shenkar, O. (2005) The Chinese Century: The Rising Chinese Economy and Its Impact on the Global Economy, The Balance of Power, and Your Job. Philadelphia, PA: Wharton School Publishing.
100.
Singhal, R. and Mishra, G. (1989) `Variations in Achievement Cognitions: The Role of Ecology, Age and Gender', International Journal of Intercultural Relations13: 93-107.
101.
Sinha, J.A. (1984) `Model of Effective Leadership Styles in India ', International Studies of Management and Organization (Summer-Fall): 86-98.
102.
Sinha, J. and Kanungo, R. (1997) `Context Sensitivity and Balancing in Indian Organization Behavior', International Journal of Psychology32: 93-105.
103.
Sinha, J.A. and Sinha, D. (1990) `Role of Social Values in Indian Organizations' , International Journal of Psychology25: 705-15.
104.
Sparrow, P. and Budhwar, P. (1997) `Competition and Change: Mapping the Indian HRM Recipe against World Wide Patterns', Journal of World Business32: 224-42.
105.
Sparrow, P. and Wu, P.C. (1998) `Does National Culture Really Matter? Predicting HRM Preferences of Taiwanese Employees', Employee Relations20(1): 26-56.
106.
Stahl, G.K. and Bjorkman, I. (eds) (2006) Handbook of Research in International Human Resource Management. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
107.
Stalker, P. (2000) Workers without Frontiers: The Impact of Globalization on International Migration. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner.
108.
Suutari, V. and Brewster, C. (2000) `Making Their Own Way: International Experience through Self-Initiated Foreign Assignments', Journal of World Business35: 417-36.
109.
Tayeb, M. (1987) `Contingency Theory and Culture: A Study of Matched English and Indian Manufacturing Firms', Organization Studies8: 241-61.
110.
Triandis, H.C. (1988) `Collectivism and Development', in D. Sinha and H.S. Kao (eds) Social Values and Development, pp. 285-303. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
111.
Triandis, H.C. (1995) Individualism and Collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
112.
Triandis, H.C. (2006) `Cultural Aspects of Globalization', Journal of International Management12(2): 208-17.
113.
Tripathi, R.C. (1990) `Interplay of Values in the Functioning of Indian Organizations', International Journal of Psychology25: 715-34.
114.
Trompenaars, F. (1994) Riding the Waves of Culture. London: Economist Books.
115.
Tung, R. (1981) `Selecting and Training of Personnel for Overseas Assignments', Colombia Journal of World Business16(2): 68-78.
116.
Valaster, C. (2005) `Cultural Diversity and Its Impact on Social Interactive Process', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management5(2): 139-63.
117.
Van Maanen, J. and Schein, E. (1979) `Toward a Theory of Organizational Socialization' , Research in Organizational Behavior1: 209-64.
118.
Walumbwa, F.O. and Lawler, J.J. (2003) `Building Effective Organizations: Transformational Leadership, Collectivist Orientation, Work-related Attitudes and Withdrawal Behaviors in Three Emerging Economies', International Journal of Human Resource Management14: 1083-101.
119.
Wang, X. (2005) `Expatriate Adjustment from a Social Network Perspective: Theoretical Examinational and a Conceptual Model', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management2(3): 321-37.
120.
Watson, E.W. and Kumar, K. (1992) `Differences in Decision Making Regarding Risk Taking: A Comparison of Culturally Diverse and Culturally Homogeneous Task Groups', International Journal of Intercultural Relations16: 53-65.
121.
Wenger, E. and Snyder, W. (2000) `Communalities of Practice: The Organizational Frontier', Harvard Business Review78: 139-46.
122.
Woldu, H. (2000) `Do Size and National Origin of Companies Determine the Organizational Cultural Behavior?', in South West Business Symposium Proceedings, University of Central Oklahoma, CD Version.
123.
Woldu, H., Budhwar, P. and Parkes, C. (2006) `A Cross-national Comparison of Cultural Value Orientations of Indian, Polish, Russian and American Employees', International Journal of Human Resource Management17(6): 1076-94.
124.
Woldu, H. and Gao, I. (1999) `Understanding Cultural Differences between Russia and North America', in M. Frazer and M. Chatterji (eds) Management Education in Countries in Transition, pp. 306-21. Basingstoke: Macmillan,
125.
Zandler, L. and Romani, L. (2004) `When Nationality Matters: A Study of Departmental, Hierarchical, Professional, Gender and Age-based Employees Groupings' Leadership Preferences across 15 Countries', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management4(3): 291-315.
