Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Outdoor swimming, self-rescue and lifesaving (OSSL) has gained increased attention in physical education, largely driven by concerns for safety and drowning prevention. However, this emphasis on risk management often narrows OSSL to technical instruction, overlooking its broader educational potential. While previous research has focused on skill acquisition, the wider pedagogical value of OSSL remains underexplored. This study investigates how physical education teachers experience OSSL and whether – and how – they see it as a context for promoting holistic learning, in line with Klafki's concept of Bildung (Klafki, 1975, 2007), which emphasizes self-determination, co-determination and solidarity. We conducted qualitative interviews with six lower secondary school teachers in Norway. Through thematic analysis, we generated four key themes: (1) engagement and emotional intensity in OSSL, (2) challenges and enabling conditions, (3) facets of general Bildung and (4) dialectical moments as potential facilitators of categorial Bildung. The findings suggest that outdoor environments offer rich, real-world learning contexts that may support both skill development and deeper educational aims. Despite barriers such as limited training and resources, teachers integrated OSSL in varied ways and emphasized its formative potential. This study highlights the need for stronger institutional support and teacher preparation to realize OSSL's potential as a context for holistic education. Future research should explore how teacher education and school structures can better align OSSL practice with the broader aims of Bildung.

Keywords

Swimming aquatics outdoor education physical education Bildung holistic education

Introduction

Learning to swim enables participation in water activities and is a key competence in school curricula. Teachers are expected to provide swimming lessons for students to become familiar with varying water conditions and engage in activities in, on and around the water (Gjølme and Grydeland, 2021a). Research has highlighted water competence as critical to drowning prevention (Langendorfer and Bruya, 1995). Outdoor swimming and lifesaving promote experiential learning (Lundhaug and Eriksen, 2022), and practicing in open water can build transferable skills (Guignard et al., 2020; Kjendlie et al., 2013). However, only 62.5% of 9- to 10-year-olds in Norway meet national swimming standards (Sundan et al., 2024). Olstad et al. (2021) presented outsourcing as a possible solution for schools lacking in-house swimming expertise but emphasized the need for better teacher training and professional development in water safety. Similarly, Dyson et al. (2016) found that schools rarely assessed outsourced programs and that teachers criticized the pedagogical approaches of external providers, who often lacked adequate curriculum knowledge. While some studies point to benefits beyond technical skills, such as communication and self-confidence (Petrass et al., 2021), school-based swimming often remains framed as drowning prevention and skill development (Gjølme and Grydeland, 2021b). This reflects a broader lack of research exploring outdoor swimming, self-rescue and lifesaving (OSSL) in terms of holistic educational aims within physical education (PE). However, water-based movement is considered to have the potential to support cognitive, social, emotional and physical learning – provided it is facilitated under appropriate pedagogical conditions (Opstoel et al., 2020).

In Norway, Bildung is a core educational principle, emphasizing holistic, lifelong development towards active, critical and responsible citizenship (Engebretsen, 2021; Esser-Noethlichs, 2019). Wibowo et al. (2023) framed Bildung as a basis for student-centred teaching, while Esser-Noethlichs and Løndal (2022) called for didactical research to strengthen its role in PE. From a comparative angle, Aggerholm and Giese (2023) argued that an integrative Bildung approach offers an alternative to the reductionism found in much Anglo-American literature.

Other holistic approaches to PE – such as physical literacy (Whitehead, 2010) and meaningful PE (Beni et al., 2017) – have gained prominence in recent years. In this study, we chose Bildung because it is firmly rooted in the Scandinavian curriculum tradition and offers a normative and didactical perspective. Unlike more descriptive models, Bildung explicitly links subject content to long-term educational aims, making it particularly relevant for examining how teachers reflect on purpose and values in their teaching. While some efforts have connected swimming education to broader aims, it remains primarily framed by concerns about safety and technical competence. The risks associated with water activities often reinforce a focus on prevention, narrowing the pedagogical scope (Gjølme and Grydeland, 2021b; Kjendlie et al., 2013; Opstoel et al., 2020). This makes it particularly relevant to explore how teachers interpret the potential of OSSL, considering Klafki's concept of Bildung (Klafki, 2007).

Despite the increased curricular emphasis on OSSL in Norway, little is known about how PE teachers understand and apply this content. Few empirical studies have examined how it may support the broader educational ideals associated with Bildung (Gjølme and Grydeland, 2021b; Petrass et al., 2021). This study addresses these gaps by interpreting teachers’ reflections through Klafki's (2007) theory of Bildung, connecting situated teaching experiences with long-term educational goals. It offers insight into how OSSL may function not just as a site for skill development but as a meaningful context for holistic learning and personal growth.

Based on this gap, our study is guided by two research questions:

How do a sample of PE teachers experience teaching swimming, self-rescue and lifesaving outdoors?

Do these PE teachers perceive OSSL as a context to promote Bildung and, if so, in what ways?

To investigate these questions, we conducted a qualitative study with PE teachers who had experience teaching OSSL. By examining their reflections, we aimed to better understand how OSSL is approached in practice and how it may serve as a context for educational engagement in line with the concept of Bildung.

Context

Outdoor swimming is a popular activity among youth, valued for both recreation and sport (Olstad et al., 2021). To support safe participation, students need to develop ‘water competence’ (Stallman et al., 2017), which includes skills like floating, gliding and basic swimming techniques. These are usually practiced in stable indoor conditions but are expected to transfer to open water – where risks are greater. However, this assumption has been questioned, and scholars call for reshaping learning environments to improve transfer to outdoor settings (Guignard et al., 2020; Olstad et al., 2021).

In response, Norway's 2020 curriculum reform emphasizes OSSL (Ministry of Education, 2020). By the end of 10th grade, students should master lifesaving techniques, swim proficiently and understand basic first aid to enhance safety in natural water settings (Gjølme and Grydeland, 2021a). The curriculum stresses both self-rescue and rescuing others, positioning swimming education as central to risk management (Olstad et al., 2021). However, few schools report offering outdoor swimming lessons (Waagene et al., 2018). Although these data predate the reform, we found no more recent large-scale studies documenting the extent to which OSSL has been implemented since 2020. The difficulties we experienced in recruiting teachers actively engaged in OSSL suggest that the practice may still be uncommon.

The Norwegian core curriculum emphasizes that students should develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for self-realization and responsible participation in society, grounded in values such as human dignity, freedom, equality and solidarity (Ministry of Education, 2020). These values align closely with the concept of Bildung, which offers a holistic and normative framework for interpreting educational aims. To realize this potential, OSSL must go beyond technical skill acquisition to foster critical thinking, responsibility and solidarity – key dimensions of general Bildung (Klafki, 2007). Achieving this requires learning environments that support holistic development and present students with meaningful challenges. OSSL may offer such opportunities but only when approached through a value-oriented and pedagogically reflective perspective.

Theoretical perspective: categorial Bildung according to Wolfgang Klafki

The concept of Bildung, rooted in the European educational tradition, represents a holistic and normative approach to teaching and learning. Scholars such as Klafki (2007), Horlacher (2015) and Westbury et al. (2000) described Bildung as fostering comprehensive individual development – moral, intellectual and practical. In the European didactic tradition (Westbury et al., 2000), it serves as a guiding principle, shaping both educational aims and content by asking what students should learn and why. The goal of Bildung is to humanize and democratize education through values such as human dignity, respect, democracy, diversity and critical thinking (Klafki, 2007).

General and categorial Bildung

Klafki (2007) defined general Bildung (Allgemeinbildung) as the development of a personal connection to three core dimensions: self-determination, co-determination and solidarity. Self-determination involves making informed, autonomous choices in areas such as relationships, careers and ethics, reflecting the aim of fostering independent critical thinkers. Co-determination highlights the right and responsibility to influence societal, political and cultural conditions, preparing students for active citizenship. Solidarity refers to the ethical duty to support those whose opportunities for self- or co-determination are hindered by structural factors, such as oppression, promoting empathy and social responsibility.

The core of Klafki's (1975) didactical theory is the concept of categorial Bildung, in which personal development is intertwined with an evolving understanding of the world. As students engage with the content, their self-awareness and perceptions of reality develop together. Bildung is both an exploration of reality and a process of self-discovery, as students encounter universal concepts and build personal insights. Each educational experience not only builds skills but also broadens the students’ perspectives, equipping them with tools (categories) to understand new aspects of the world. Bildung is categorial because, in this process, the world reveals itself to the learner, while the learner, through self-guided insights, opens up to the world (Klafki, 1975).

According to Klafki (2007), categorial Bildung is a dialectical process that links the material and formal dimensions of education. Material Bildung involves acquiring knowledge, skills and cultural content; formal Bildung focuses on developing cognitive, social and emotional capacities to engage with and shape the world. This interaction aims to foster self-determination, co-determination and solidarity.

In PE, learning to swim can illustrate how bodily encounters with the environment can initiate categorial Bildung. Water presents an unfamiliar setting that challenges bodily awareness and perception. Its thermal conductivity, density and pressure often provoke discomfort, while its resistance and buoyancy disrupt familiar movement patterns. These sensations can trigger fear or frustration – but also spark curiosity and exploration. Such disruptions are not merely obstacles to overcome; they may act as catalysts for Bildung, where learning involves more than acquiring skills – it entails a transformation in how students relate to their environment and themselves. For instance, the experience of buoyancy can unsettle students’ habitual ways of moving. At first, they may resist the water's support, feeling destabilized or out of control. Gradually, through play and experimentation, they learn to adjust, trust the medium and work with it rather than against it. This embodied negotiation demonstrates the dialectical nature of categorial Bildung, where understanding emerges through struggle, adaptation and discovery.

Fostering such learning requires student-centred teaching. Bildung cannot be imposed; it must be personally experienced and reflected upon (Klafki, 2007). Creating space for decision-making and peer negotiation is essential. For example, in paired floating exercises, students are responsible for supporting each other – an activity that demands mutual trust and attentiveness. If one fails to take responsibility, the exercise may break down or feel unsafe. These moments make visible the ethical and relational dimensions of Bildung, showing that trust and responsibility are not simply taught – they emerge through shared experience. In such situations, the teacher's role is to facilitate reflection and help students explore what cooperation, responsibility and solidarity mean in practice – an approach that echoes Klafki's (2000) call for didactical analysis aimed at revealing the educational potential of subject matter.

Klafki's reception in sport pedagogy and some ideas on Bildung beyond Klafki

Klafki's (1975) theory of categorial Bildung frames education as a reciprocal, dialectical process that links self-formation with engagement in the world. In sport pedagogy, this idea has expanded the understanding of movement competence beyond technical skills – towards self-exploration, social interaction and existential learning (Aggerholm and Giese, 2023; Brinkmann and Giese, 2025; Klafki, 2001; Stübig and Stübig, 2018; Wibowo et al., 2023).

Laging (2018) showed how Klafki's (2007) framework helped shift the focus in PE from performance to reflexive movement experiences. Klafki's (2007) dimensions of self-determination, co-determination and solidarity have shaped discussions on participation and social responsibility. However, Laging (2018) also noted the challenge of applying Klafki's (2007) abstract theory directly to embodied learning. To address these limitations, scholars have extended categorial Bildung through concepts such as transformative Bildung and phenomenology. The transformative facet of Bildung emphasizes learning through disruptive moments – where physical limits or unfamiliar experiences prompt deep reflection (Aggerholm and Giese, 2023). Phenomenological approaches foreground lived bodily experience as central to Bildung, positioning movement as world- and self-encounter rather than skill acquisition (Aggerholm and Larsen, 2017).

Although Klafki (1992) acknowledged the educational potential of sport and PE, he left this area largely underexamined. Despite recent theoretical developments, his didactical theory remains underexplored in sport pedagogy, especially in empirical contexts, leaving room for further development.

Method

To explore how PE teachers experience OSSL, the second author conducted qualitative interviews with six teachers working at the lower secondary level. All participants had formal qualifications in PE and were actively teaching this subject. Recruitment proved challenging, consistent with earlier findings that OSSL remains uncommon in Norwegian schools (Waagene et al., 2018). To identify relevant participants, we used targeted recruitment strategies, such as social media, podcasts and online articles – focusing on teachers who had publicly shared their engagement with OSSL. Although time-consuming, this process led to six interviews with teachers pseudonymized as Tor, Leo, Olivia, Oscar, Mats and Tiril.

The participants were located through various channels: Tor was identified via a web article on outdoor swimming initiatives, Leo and Oscar responded to recruitment emails forwarded by school principals, Olivia had posted about her teaching in a Facebook group for PE teachers, Mats was recommended by a colleague, and Tiril was featured in a podcast on lifesaving and outdoor swimming.

Participant backgrounds and teaching contexts

The participants were six PE teachers at the lower secondary level in Norway. Table 1 summarizes their genders, teaching experience, qualifications, OSSL experience and general attitudes towards the topic. As noted above, the group showed a relatively high interest in outdoor teaching, which likely influenced how they interpreted and discussed the educational potential of OSSL. This context should be considered when interpreting the findings.

Table 1.

Overview of participants.

Name (pseudonym)	Gender	Teaching experience	Qualification (PE/outdoor)	OSSL experience	Notes
Tor	Male	23 years	General teacher education + local course	Teaching OSSL since 2000	Enthusiastic; initiated OSSL at his school
Leo	Male	Newly graduated	Master’s degree in PE	No formal training, confident in teaching	Positive attitude; uses external providers
Olivia	Female	About 10 years in lower secondary	Bachelor’s degree in PE	Some courses, limited practice	Active on social media sharing PE ideas
Oscar	Male	Since 2017	6-year degree (math, science and PE)	Formal training in indoor teaching only	Strong interest in outdoor life and nature
Mats	Male	Several years as a teacher and at least 10 years at the same school	PE, English and CRPE^a + 60 additional credits in PE	Strong personal interest and teaching experience	Year-round cold-water swimmer; reflective teacher
Tiril	Female	Full-time lower secondary	PE + certified personal trainer	Recent courses, school has good facilities	Engaged teacher; works with youth empowerment program

Christianity, religion, philosophy and ethics.

Researchers’ positionality

The authors held distinct roles in the project. The second author, drawing on personal experience with swimming and OSSL in schools, initiated the study and was responsible for data collection, transcription and initial analysis. The first author, a more experienced researcher, led the writing process and contributed expertise in Bildung theory and OSSL pedagogy. The first author also developed the theoretical framework and conducted an in-depth analysis, working iteratively between transcripts, codes and generated themes. Both authors collaborated regularly throughout the project – refining research questions, discussing theory, analysing data and revising the manuscript. Thematic development was further enhanced through feedback from colleagues, both through critical reading and during a research group presentation.

Conducting the interviews

The interview guide covered key topics, including participants’ backgrounds, education, experiences with planning and teaching OSSL, and reflections on its potential to promote Bildung. The interviews began with questions about personal leisure activities, followed by training in OSSL and teaching approaches. The concept of Bildung was explored through questions related to self-determination, co-determination and solidarity. To ensure clarity, the term Bildung was not used directly; instead, it was operationalized through accessible prompts, such as ‘What experiences or outcomes do you hope students gain from OSSL?’ and ‘How do you enable students to take responsibility for their learning?’ The final section of the interview addressed challenges and support needs, with questions like, ‘What do you see as the main challenges for teachers when conducting OSSL lessons?’ The interviews lasted between 25 and 45 minutes. The full interview guide is included in Supplementary Appendix A.

Data analysis

We chose thematic analysis (TA) for its iterative structure and methodological flexibility, which allowed for both inductive and deductive approaches (Braun and Clarke, 2006). In the first phase, we used an open, inductive approach to explore how teachers described their experiences and practices, generating codes and themes directly from the data. In the second phase, we applied a deductive lens informed by general Bildung – self-determination, co-determination and solidarity – and drew on Klafki's (1975) concept of categorial Bildung to identify potential dialectical moments where students might engage with unfamiliar and challenging outdoor elements. These analytic perspectives were applied iteratively throughout the six phases of TA. All transcripts were reviewed manually using Microsoft Word, OneNote and handwritten notes (e.g. Post-its and sketches) to organize codes, memos and generated themes. The final sample consisted of six teachers with relevant personal or professional engagement in OSSL, reflecting the challenge of recruiting informants in a still-emerging area of Norwegian PE. While small, the sample aligns with the aims of qualitative inquiry, which emphasize contextual depth and meaning-making over breadth (Creswell and Poth, 2018). Semi-structured interviews elicited reflective accounts of how the informants interpreted the educational potential of OSSL (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2015).

We followed the six steps outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006) for our analysis:

Step 1: Transcripts were read thoroughly to gain an initial sense of recurring ideas and differences across the interviews.

Step 2: Relevant codes were developed through interpretation, focusing on aspects aligned with the research questions, namely teachers’ experiences with OSSL and their reflections related to general and categorial Bildung. For the first research question, codes were generated inductively from the data, capturing how teachers described their teaching practices and challenges. For the second question, we applied a more theory-driven approach, identifying data segments that related to Bildung-oriented concepts such as self-determination, co-determination, solidarity and dialectical moments.

Step 3: Codes were grouped into broader categories to form preliminary themes. For instance, student outcomes was a key theme, encompassing concepts like life mastery, enjoyment and body awareness. Bildung – with its dimensions of self-determination, co-determination and solidarity – was predefined as a theme linked to the second research question. We then reread the entire dataset to specifically identify dialectical moments.

Step 4: Themes were reviewed and refined for coherence and relevance. A mind map was used to visualize thematic connections and improve structure.

Step 5: We named and further refined the themes through collaborative discussions, led by the first author. Initial themes included competency goals in OSSL, student excitement and challenges in planning and execution. Feedback and collaboration during Step 5 involved ongoing discussions between the two authors, as well as input from colleagues in a PE research group, who responded to a preliminary version of the analysis. These interactions helped refine the thematic structure and prompted critical reflection on the framing of Bildung in relation to the empirical material.

Step 6: The final themes – (1) engagement and emotional intensity in OSSL, (2) challenges and enabling conditions, (3) facets of general Bildung and (4) dialectical moments as potential facilitators of categorial Bildung – were synthesized into a cohesive narrative supported by illustrative quotes.

Ethical considerations

The study was approved by the Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research. The participants were informed about the study's purpose, their rights and their ability to withdraw at any time without giving a reason. Informed consent was obtained before the interviews. Confidentiality was ensured by using pseudonyms and removing personal identifiers. The data were accessible only to the researchers and deleted after transcription.

Results

Although all the interview questions focused on OSSL, the participants often connected their responses to broader values and experiences from PE. Their general pedagogical ideals shaped how they approached OSSL – and in some cases, OSSL experiences influenced their views on PE more broadly.

Engagement and emotional intensity in OSSL

Several teachers described OSSL as a more intense and emotionally engaging context than traditional indoor settings. Tor observed that even typically reluctant students were more eager to participate outdoors, particularly when wetsuits helped reduce concerns about body exposure. Oscar added that although students were often nervous at first, they typically responded positively afterwards, gaining a better understanding of how their bodies react in cold conditions. Mats highlighted how these sessions demanded more from both students and teachers, emphasizing the importance of knowing students well enough to balance encouragement and caution:

That's what makes this subject rewarding […] you’re so close to the students, but you need to know them well to understand when to be cautious and when you can actually push them.

These reflections suggest that OSSL, when shaped by relational attentiveness and embodied challenge, can become more than a shift in setting. It can create a pedagogical space where emotional closeness, bodily experience and responsive teaching can contribute meaningfully to student learning.

Olivia described her first experience teaching OSSL as both demanding and rewarding. She noted the logistical complexity and emotional weight of responsibility:

One of the reasons why it can feel like a high threshold is that it requires quite a bit […] that organization takes effort, and that's why I think many hesitate.

Despite her initial apprehension, she reflected positively on the experience:

It exceeded all expectations […] it was my first proper time. It was a good start for me and everyone involved.

Still, she realized the pressure involved in risk assessment and supervision: ‘I had a bit of butterflies in my stomach’. Oscar shared a similar perspective, highlighting the uncertainty of trying something new – but also the importance of doing so:

Trying new things is always scary. But my own experience is really just that you should dive in and try. […] We are still in a learning process when it comes to teaching outdoor swimming […] And you also have to dare to try and fail.

These accounts reinforce the idea that OSSL requires emotional investment and pedagogical courage – not only from students but also from teachers. The sense of reward described by Olivia and Oscar stems not simply from executing a successful lesson but from stepping into uncertainty, managing risk and creating a meaningful learning experience despite the challenges.

Challenges and enabling conditions

In this section, we focus on the challenges and enabling conditions described by our sample of teachers. A recurring theme among the teachers was the importance of collaboration and support from school management. Olivia mentioned that her school provided resources and required her to submit a risk assessment before conducting the lesson. Tiril emphasized, ‘The school has arranged […] so we can plan together’. Oscar, who started teaching OSSL at the request of his principal, said:

The goal is for PE teachers to take the main responsibility […] It takes effort and is a bit daunting to get started. But you have to start somewhere.

Unlike the other teachers, who advocated for teaching OSSL directly, Leo delegated this responsibility to an external provider. While he valued their program, he expressed concern about not being able to observe his students and doubts about whether they could fully meet the competency goals through this external course.

Unlike Leo, Mats emphasized not only the organizational demands of OSSL but also the importance of creating a supportive learning environment. He described having to ‘push and fight’ for enough time with his students, aiming for five sessions per semester – far more than his colleagues. His reflection points to the emotional and social vulnerability involved in OSSL, particularly when students are lightly dressed and exposed to cold. He warned that if teachers focus too heavily on formal assessment – ‘standing there ticking off, evaluating’ – students may feel judged: ‘You’re shooting yourself in the foot’. To avoid this, Mats took a gradual approach, allowing students time to build confidence: ‘Slowly but surely, you push them […] to wear swimwear underneath even if they really don’t want to’.

To manage time constraints, Mats combined PE lessons with other subjects, as he teaches multiple subjects. He stressed the importance of strategic advocacy with school management to get the opportunity to teach OSSL:

Read the curriculum carefully, use it to justify […] the importance of addressing this. […] We need to equip children and adolescents to take care of themselves and their fellow humans […] especially in terms of mental health. Utilize life skills education to its fullest potential.

Both Tiril's and Tor's schools have invested in outdoor swimming equipment to enhance OSSL lessons.

Facets of general Bildung

Teachers had varied responses regarding self-determination, co-determination and solidarity in OSSL. Most organized their lessons with a strong focus on risk and safety protocols. Oscar noted that, while students do not choose specific exercises, they can select the level of difficulty, offering some degree of self-determination. Tor mentioned that time constraints, primarily due to safety protocols, limit the implementation of self- and co-determination. Olivia expressed a desire to improve this aspect in the future, acknowledging it as an area for development in her teaching. Tiril, however, saw co-determination as both possible and beneficial:

As they become more confident, they can explore and maybe even be involved in planning the next session themselves. […] I believe it's very beneficial to involve the students in this way, as it facilitates relationship building.

She saw co-determination as a way to encourage student participation and strengthen relationships, allowing students to have a say in planning activities as they gained confidence. Our analysis also highlights a consensus among the teachers on the importance of solidarity. Solidarity is seen as essential, especially during lifesaving activities, where students help and support each other throughout the process. Tor explained:

It takes the form of the lifesaving aspect, with supporting and helping. […] It's throughout the process, from getting dressed to providing support outside […] We’re entirely dependent on some students stepping up and ‘backing’ others.

The other teachers also emphasized the importance of students supporting each other during lifesaving activities, as this is crucial for the lessons’ success. They highlighted that lifesaving requires students to develop an understanding of the risks of being in or near water. Tiril regularly discussed water safety and risk awareness with her students:

We talk about what can happen in the water and unexpectedly. […] It's important that they are observant. […] If someone behaves differently […], one must be alert and perhaps consider getting out of the water.

Tiril highlighted the importance of students understanding their own competence, building confidence and being able to act in situations where help is needed. She explained:

I hope they feel safe in the water, that they know how to control their breathing and not to panic. […] We’ve discussed that they could fall out of a boat, or other things could happen that require them to swim […] That they somehow possess competence in both swimming, staying afloat, and being able to save themselves. But also, that they are capable of saving and rescuing others regardless of body composition.

These experiences were echoed by several interviewees. Olivia underscored the importance of this knowledge and experience for life and added:

I also think, now I shouldn’t underestimate the mental training. The fact that one pushes themselves in situations that are uncomfortable. It's transferable to life, and feeling that one can help others, and with that knowledge, one can actually save someone.

Dialectical moments as potential facilitators of categorial Bildung

Teachers described how OSSL places students in unfamiliar and unpredictable conditions – cold water, open landscapes and changing weather – creating situations that push physical and emotional limits. These experiences, they suggested, can challenge students to manage fear, reflect on their bodily reactions and build new forms of understanding.

Tor emphasized the educational value of these physical encounters. For his students, facing the cold is not just a test of endurance but a way to experience something real:

For 8th grade, we have them paddle out on an SUP [stand up paddleboarding] board and experience the elements […] For 9th grade, we row them 100 meters out […] right in the middle of winter.

He noted that reactions vary – some students feel shock, while others are excited – but most come away with a stronger sense of mastery:

They become a bit tougher […] they learn through experience that, yes, they can manage, even if it's −15°C outside.

Mats also highlighted how such situations build life skills by confronting internal stress:

It […] involves what one does as a person when experiencing the athletic type of stress in the body […] Having a wide range of strategies […] Being outdoors brings such an inner joy and feeling that the world opens up a bit.

Other teachers emphasized the contrast between outdoor and indoor environments. Leo pointed to the emotional intensity of being in cold, dark, moving water: ‘It's completely different from indoors. […] It can be scarier, which more easily leads to panic’. Building on this, Olivia saw value in helping students face unfamiliar situations and prepare for real-life emergencies: ‘It's about experiencing a completely different setting […] and discussing self-rescue, like if you’re playing on the pier and fall in’. Oscar and Tiril added that such situations foster bodily awareness and emotional regulation. Oscar explained, ‘It's about understanding yourself – how you react, how your breathing becomes rushed’. Tiril focused on self-control and readiness: ‘I hope they feel safe, know how to control their breathing and not panic. We’ve talked about falling out of a boat or having to swim across quickly’.

Taken together, these reflections suggest that OSSL can offer more than technical instruction. In moments of discomfort, exposure and uncertainty, students are invited to respond – not just physically but also reflectively. These embodied encounters can foster trust, confidence and cooperation. When supported and followed up pedagogically, such moments may serve as facilitators of categorial Bildung, where learning emerges through a dynamic interaction between the self and the world.

Discussion

This discussion addresses two research questions: (1) how PE teachers experience teaching OSSL and (2) whether and how they perceive it as a context for Bildung. We first discuss the pedagogical conditions and challenges teachers face when implementing OSSL, including its potential for teachers’ professional learning. We then interpret the findings in light of Klafki's concepts of general (Klafki, 2007) and categorial Bildung (Klafki, 1975), exploring how OSSL may foster self-determination, co-determination and solidarity. Finally, we reflect on the study's limitations and propose directions for future research.

Teaching OSSL: demands, engagement and professional learning

A demanding yet meaningful practice

The teachers generally supported the increased curricular emphasis on OSSL, but they described a range of experiences and motivations. Many emphasized that OSSL is logistically and pedagogically demanding. The need to ensure safety, secure resources and manage diverse student needs made OSSL challenging to plan and implement, particularly in school environments with limited institutional support.

Leo addressed these challenges by outsourcing instruction to external providers, a strategy that raises concerns about educational oversight and curricular alignment (Blair and Capel, 2011; Olstad et al., 2021). Other teachers, such as Mats and Oscar, insisted on conducting OSSL themselves, despite the obstacles. They described having to ‘push and fight’ for time and resources but also saw the experience as rewarding. Mats, for example, emphasized how outdoor teaching allowed him to connect with students more deeply and meaningfully. Several teachers mentioned that OSSL created stronger emotional engagement, particularly for students who might feel less confident in traditional PE settings. These reflections suggest that, although OSSL can be resource-intensive, it also offers distinctive pedagogical value.

Professional development in context

In the absence of formal training or clear institutional guidelines, most teachers described how they developed competence in OSSL through experience, experimentation and reflection. Oscar noted that sometimes ‘You just have to start somewhere’, pointing to the gradual, situated nature of their learning process. This aligns with what Kyndt et al. (2016) described as teachers’ everyday professional development – learning that occurs informally through engagement with real-world tasks, trial-and-error and reflective practice. Mats illustrated this by highlighting how OSSL had helped him refine his own didactics, including how he introduced sensitive topics, such as body image.

Rather than viewing OSSL merely as a curricular obligation, many teachers interpreted it as an opportunity for both student and teacher development. This dual benefit – the formation of students and the ongoing learning of educators – suggests that OSSL may also support what could be called teacher Bildung.

Educational potential beyond skill: general Bildung in OSSL

Fostering self-determination and co-determination

Many of the teachers in our study described practices that align with Klafki's (2007) concept of general Bildung, particularly the dimensions of self-determination and co-determination. Tiril and Mats, for instance, involved students in planning, goal setting or self-assessment. These strategies gave the students opportunities to take responsibility for their own learning and to actively contribute to shared decisions. Such approaches are consistent with the goals articulated in the Norwegian curriculum, which emphasizes participation, critical thinking and student agency as central to education (Ministry of Education, 2020). Oscar offered a more constrained but still meaningful form of autonomy by allowing the students to choose between different difficulty levels within a predefined lesson structure.

However, many teachers also acknowledged the limitations. The responsibility for safety often meant retaining control over the flow of lessons, thus reducing the possibility of open-ended co-determination. This reflects broader findings that PE teachers frequently manage participation through structured teacher-led activities (Standal et al., 2020). The challenge, as several teachers noted, is to balance the need for safety with the ambition of empowering students.

Solidarity through collaboration

Solidarity was most visible in situations in which students helped one another during lifesaving exercises or supported peers in uncomfortable settings. Teachers such as Oscar and Tiril emphasized how these collaborative moments created a sense of mutual responsibility. In these instances, the students were not just fulfilling a task but enacting care – helping each other regulate fear, complete difficult tasks or stay calm in challenging situations. While helping is often encouraged in PE, Bildung-oriented solidarity – as Klafki (2007) described it – involves more than supportive behaviour. It entails empowering others towards self- and co-determination. Tiril's account of students learning to stay calm and assist others in emergencies reflects this broader ethical dimension: not only acting in the moment, but also developing a readiness to act on behalf of others when needed.

Olivia and Mats also emphasized the importance of relational trust and emotional safety, suggesting that solidarity is expressed not only through physical acts, but also through the interpersonal climate that supports risk-taking and reflection. These moments suggest that OSSL – particularly when approached relationally – can cultivate educational experiences grounded in shared responsibility and ethical awareness.

OSSL as a setting for categorial Bildung

Dialectical learning through bodily experience

The most direct links to categorial Bildung emerged when teachers described emotionally and physically demanding situations in OSSL – what we have framed as dialectical moments. These included sudden immersion in cold water, rough weather or unpredictable conditions that disrupted students’ usual movement patterns and self-perception.

Teachers such as Tor and Olivia observed how students were initially shocked or hesitant, but with support, they managed to stay calm, adapt and eventually master the situation. Mats emphasized how such moments prompted reflection: students not only acted under pressure but also began to understand how their bodies and emotions responded to stress. These descriptions suggest a dual process – students open up to the world (material dimension) while developing self-awareness (formal dimension) – which lies at the heart of Klafki's (1975) concept of categorial Bildung.

Our findings resonate with earlier studies showing how outdoor conditions can increase the relevance of learning experiences (Guignard et al., 2020; Kjendlie et al., 2013). However, the outdoor context alone does not automatically promote Bildung. Teachers repeatedly emphasized that these moments only became educationally meaningful when accompanied by reflection, trust and gradual exposure – elements that depend on teacher judgement and pedagogical framing.

Adaptive teaching and pedagogical framing

The teachers in our study pointed out that not all students responded the same way and that pushing too hard could lead to disengagement or discomfort. Instead, they emphasized adaptive progression, emotional regulation and creation of a safe relational environment. This perspective aligns with research on adaptive and contingent teaching, which stresses that learning depends on how instruction is attuned to students’ needs in real time (Hardy et al., 2019; Parsons et al., 2018). Wibowo and Dyson (2021) further argued that PE creates unique opportunities for such contingency, as bodily action in uncertain environments naturally disrupts routines and opens space for new ways of being.

As Stabick and Bähr (2025) cautioned, uncertainty alone does not generate Bildung – it must be accompanied by pedagogical sensitivity and opportunity for reflection. Our findings support this. The most meaningful examples of transformation were not spontaneous but co-constructed – emerging through the interplay between student experience, environmental challenge and responsive teaching.

Limitations and implications for future research

This study offers insight into how OSSL may serve as a pedagogical context for both general and categorial Bildung. Its main strength lies in the depth of teacher reflections and the theoretical framing that enables nuanced interpretation. By focusing on teachers already engaged in OSSL, the study accessed detailed practice-based insights rarely represented in the current literature. However, this recruitment strategy also shaped the sample; most participants were motivated, experienced and positively inclined towards OSSL. As such, the findings are likely to reflect an affirmative perspective. This may help explain the predominance of narratives in which students overcame fear or discomfort. We lack perspectives on students who remained uncertain, disengaged or resistant – moments that may also carry formative potential.

The study aimed for depth over breadth and interpretive insight rather than representativeness. The qualitative design limits generalizability. Still, future research should include voices from a broader spectrum of PE teachers – including those with less experience or ambivalence towards OSSL – to better capture the full range of pedagogical challenges and potential. Including students’ experiences would also offer valuable perspectives, aligning with Klafki’s (2007) emphasis on assessing Bildung not just from the teacher's standpoint but from those affected by the teaching.

Methodologically, the study relied on interviews. While rich in reflection, this approach does not show how teachers respond to pedagogical situations in real time. Future studies could combine interviews with observational methods (Fangen, 2010), offering other insight into how meanings are negotiated and Bildung potentials are – or are not – realized in practice.

Finally, we acknowledge the potential for social desirability bias. Despite efforts to foster openness and trust, the participants may have framed their actions in ways they perceived as professionally appropriate. Nevertheless, the consistency and depth of their reflections offer a valuable entry point into an underexplored intersection among OSSL, educational values and didactics.

Conclusions and outlook

This study offers new insight into how PE teachers experience and interpret OSSL as a context for both skill development and Bildung. While teachers emphasized safety and logistical challenges, they also identified opportunities to foster student responsibility, collaboration and reflection, especially when outdoor conditions created uncertainty. Realizing the educational potential of OSSL depends not only on teacher-specific competence, but also on institutional support and pedagogical framing. Creating space for student involvement, gradual progression and reflective dialogue is key to connecting practical teaching with broader educational aims. Future research should explore how teacher education and school leadership can better prepare and support educators in bridging curriculum goals with Bildung-oriented practice, particularly in complex real-world settings, such as OSSL.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-epe-10.1177_1356336X251358128 - Supplemental material for PE teachers’ experiences with teaching outdoor swimming, self-rescue and lifesaving: A context for skill development or Bildung?

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-epe-10.1177_1356336X251358128 for PE teachers’ experiences with teaching outdoor swimming, self-rescue and lifesaving: A context for skill development or Bildung? by Marc Esser-Noethlichs and Linn Hegland in European Physical Education Review

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We would like to extend our gratitude to Professor Dean Barker for reading the initial draft and providing invaluable insights. Special thanks to Associate Professor Lars Bjørke for his thorough review and constructive feedback, which greatly strengthened our paper. We are also grateful to our research group for their constructive comments and suggestions. We also want to thank the reviewers and editor for their constructive feedback. Finally, we wish to thank all the teachers who participated in this study, generously sharing their experiences and perspectives, which made this research possible.

ORCID iD

Marc Esser-Noethlichs

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Author biographies

Marc Esser-Noethlichs is an Associate Professor of Sport and Physical Education Didactics. His research focuses on Bildung and professional development in physical education and physical education teacher education.

Linn Hegland is a Senior Lecturer at Vigeland Lower Secondary School. Her research specializes in physical education, with a particular focus on outdoor swimming, self-rescue, and lifesaving.

References

Aggerholm

Giese

(2023) Bildung and sport pedagogy. In: Balz

Bindel

(eds) Bildungszugänge im Sport: Grundlagen und Offerten. New York: Springer, 27–40.

Aggerholm

Larsen

(2017) Parkour as acrobatics: An existential phenomenological study of movement in Parkour. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 9(1): 69–86.

Beni

Fletcher

Ní Chróinín

(2017) Meaningful experiences in physical education and youth sport: A review of the literature. Quest (Grand Rapids, Mich) 69(3): 291–312.

Blair

Capel

(2011) Primary physical education, coaches and continuing professional development. Sport, Education and Society 16(4): 485–505.

Braun

Clarke

(2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3(2): 77–101.

Brinkmann

Giese

(2025) Practising the practice. Towards a theory of practising in physical education from a Bildung-theoretical perspective. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 30(1): 50–63.

Creswell

Poth

(2018) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dyson

Gordon

Cowan

, et al. (2016) External providers and their impact on primary physical education in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education 7(1): 3–19.

Engebretsen

(2021) Dannelse som didaktisk begrep i kroppsøving. In: Vinje

(ed) Didaktiske utfordringer i kroppsøving. Oslo: Cappelen Damm Akademisk, 123–147.

10.

Esser-Noethlichs

(2019) Nye tverrfaglige temaer i et kroppsøvingsfaglig perspektiv. In: Vinje

Skrede

(eds) Fremtidens Kroppsøvingslærer. Oslo: Cappelen Damm akademisk, 50–72.

11.

Esser-Noethlichs

Løndal

(2022) Didactics in organised sport and physical education in Norway – Several concepts with unclear boundaries. In: Höger

Kleiner

(eds) Sports Didactics in Europe: History, Current Trends and Future Developments. Münster: Waxmann, 195–216.

12.

Fangen

(2010) Deltakende observasjon. Oslo: Fagbokforlaget.

13.

Gjølme

Grydeland

(2021a) Utendørs svømming og livredning. In: Gjølme

(ed) Utendørs Svømming- og Livredningsopplæring. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 15–33.

14.

Gjølme

Grydeland

(2021b) Drukningsforebyggende arbeid og water competence. In: Gjølme

(ed) Utendørs Svømming- og Livredningsopplæring. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 35–54.

15.

Guignard

Button

Davids

, et al. (2020) Education and transfer of water competencies: An ecological dynamics approach. European Physical Education Review 26(4): 938–953.

16.

Hardy

Decristan

Klieme

(2019) Adaptive teaching in research on learning and instruction. Journal for Educational Research Online (JERO) 11(2): 169–191.

17.

Horlacher

(2015) The Educated Subject and the German Concept of Bildung: A Comparative Cultural History. London: Routledge.

18.

Kjendlie

P-L

Pedersen

Setlo

, et al. (2013) Can you swim in waves? Children’s swimming, floating, and entry skills in calm and simulated unsteady water conditions. International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education 7(4): 301–313.

19.

Klafki

(1975) Studien zur Bildungstheorie und Didaktik. Weinheim, Basel: Beltz.

20.

Klafki

(1992) Gedanken zu Grundfragen der Sportdidaktik. In: Erdmann

(ed) Alte Fragen neu Gestellt. Anmerkungen zu Einer Zeitgemäßen Sportdidaktik. Schorndorf: Hofmann, 11–26.

21.

Klafki

(2000) Didaktik analysis as the core of preparation of instruction. In: Westbury

Hopmann

Riquarts

(eds) Teaching as a Reflective Practice: The German Didaktiktradition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 139–159.

22.

Klafki

(2001) Bewegungskompetenz als Bildungsdimension. In: Laging

Prohl

(eds) Bewegungskompetenz als Bildungsdimension. Hamburg: Feldhaus Verlag, 15–28.

23.

Klafki

(2007) Neue Studien zur Bildungstheorie und Didaktik. Zeitgemäße Allgemeinbildung und Kritisch-konstruktive Didaktik. Weinheim, Basel: Belz.

24.

Kvale

Brinkmann

(2015) Det Kvalitative Forskningsintervju. Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.

25.

Kyndt

Gijbels

Grosemans

, et al. (2016) Teachers’ everyday professional development: Mapping informal learning activities, antecedents, and learning outcomes. Review of Educational Research 86(4): 1111–1150.

26.

Laging

(2018) Bewegung und Sport im Horizont von Bildung. Wolfgang Klafki und die Sportpädagogik: Eine Spurensuche für die Zukunft. In: Braun

Stübig

(eds) Erziehungswissenschaftliche Reflexion und pädagogisch-politisches Engagement – Wolfgang Klafki weiterdenken. New York: Springer VS, 141–158.

27.

Langendorfer

Bruya

(1995) Aquatic Readiness: Developing Water Competence in Young Children. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.

28.

Lundhaug

Eriksen

(2022) How does a primary school organize outdoor swimming and water safety lessons? Journal for Research in Arts and Sports Education 6(1): 37–50.

29.

Ministry of Education (2020) Om faget- Fagets relevans og sentrale verdier (KRO01-05). Utdanningsdirektoratet. Available at: https://www.udir.no/lk20/kro01-05/om-faget/fagets-relevans-og-verdier?lang=nob (accessed 5 May 2025).

30.

Olstad

Berg

Kjendlie

(2021) Outsourcing swimming education – experiences and challenges. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(1): 6.

31.

Opstoel

Chapelle

Prins

, et al. (2020) Personal and social development in physical education and sports: A review study. European Physical Education Review 26(4): 797–813.

32.

Parsons

Vaughn

Scales

, et al. (2018) Teachers’ instructional adaptations: A research synthesis. Review of Educational Research 88(2): 205–242.

33.

Petrass

Simpson

Blitvich

, et al. (2021) Exploring the impact of a student-centred survival swimming programme for primary school students in Australia: The perceptions of parents, children and teachers. European Physical Education Review 27(3): 684–702.

34.

Stabick

Bähr

(2025) The phenomenon of uncertainty as an opportunity, challenge and characteristic in the field of physical education: A systematic review. Teachers and Teaching 31(2): 218–237.

35.

Stallman

Moran

Quan

, et al. (2017) From swimming skill to water competence: Towards a more inclusive drowning prevention future. International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education 10(2): Article 3.

36.

Standal

ØF

Moen

Westlie

(2020) «Ei mil vid og ein tomme djup»?–ei undersøking av innhald og undervisning i kroppsøving på ungdomstrinnet i Noreg. Journal for Research in Arts and Sports Education 4(1): 17–49.

37.

Stübig

(2018) Kategoriale Bildung und Kompetenzorientierung. In: Laging

Kuhn

(eds) Bildungstheorie und Sportdidaktik: Ein Diskurs Zwischen Kategorialer und Transformatorischer Bildung. Wiesbaden: Springer, 29–48.

38.

Sundan

Haga

Lorås

(2024) Swimming competence of 9–10-year-old Norwegian primary school children: A cross-sectional study of physical education. European Physical Education Review 31(1): 53–69.

39.

Waagene

Vaagland

Larsen

, et al. (2018) Spørsmål til Skole-Norge: Analyser og resultater fra Utdanningsdirektoratets spørreundersøkelse til skoler og skoleeiere våren 2018 (NIFU Rapport 2018:19). Nordisk institutt for studier av innovasjon, forskning og utdanning (NIFU). Available at: https://nifu.brage.unit.no/nifu-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2565301/NIFUrapport2018-19.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed 5 May 2025).

40.

Westbury

Hopmann

Riquarts

(2000) Teaching as a Reflective Practice: The German Didaktik Tradition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

41.

Whitehead

(2010) Physical Literacy: Throughout the Lifecourse. London: Routledge.

42.

Wibowo

Dyson

(2021) A contingency perspective on learning and instruction in physical education. European Physical Education Review 27(4): 727–742.

43.

Wibowo

Krieger

Gaum

, et al. (2023) Bildung: A German student-centered approach to health and physical education. European Physical Education Review 29(2): 233–250.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.02 MB

PE teachers’ experiences with teaching outdoor swimming,self-rescue and lifesaving: A context for skill development or Bildung?

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Context

Theoretical perspective: categorial Bildung according to Wolfgang Klafki

General and categorial Bildung

Klafki's reception in sport pedagogy and some ideas on Bildung beyond Klafki

Method

Participant backgrounds and teaching contexts

Researchers’ positionality

Conducting the interviews

Data analysis

Ethical considerations

Results

Engagement and emotional intensity in OSSL

Challenges and enabling conditions

Facets of general Bildung

Dialectical moments as potential facilitators of categorial Bildung

Discussion

Teaching OSSL: demands, engagement and professional learning

A demanding yet meaningful practice

Professional development in context

Educational potential beyond skill: general Bildung in OSSL

Fostering self-determination and co-determination

Solidarity through collaboration

OSSL as a setting for categorial Bildung

Dialectical learning through bodily experience

Adaptive teaching and pedagogical framing

Limitations and implications for future research

Conclusions and outlook

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-epe-10.1177_1356336X251358128 - Supplemental material for PE teachers’ experiences with teaching outdoor swimming, self-rescue and lifesaving: A context for skill development or Bildung?

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

ORCID iD

Funding

Declaration of conflicting interests

Supplemental material

Author biographies

References

Supplementary Material