Professional socialization and international norms: Physicians against organ trafficking

Abstract

The concept of state socialization has been fundamental to the analysis of international norm dynamics. I argue that the establishment and spread of international norms may require the socialization not only of states, but also of non-state communities: through socialization, these communities move toward establishing the shared norms that are the foundation for their influence on states. Specifically, the article highlights socialization among professionals through social influence and persuasion. The efforts against organ trafficking demonstrate these micro-processes at work within the international medical community. Building on physicians’ pursuit of status, and using persuasion and even coercion, the medical community has sought to establish professional norms that repudiate transplant commercialism and encourage ethical transplantation practices. On the basis of these norms, the medical community then urged governments to curb organ trafficking, resulting in a wave of legislative prohibitions on trading in organs. This case demonstrates that a full understanding of international norms may require us to examine socialization not just among states; the socialization of non-state actors may also play a crucial role in generating an international normative change.