The State of SDG 6 in Nigeria (2016-2024): A Critical Review of Progress and Future Strategies

Abstract

Ensuring access to clean water and sanitation is not only fundamental to public health but also a critical driver of economic productivity and sustainable development. In Nigeria, where millions still lack reliable access to these basic services, evaluating progress towards global targets is crucial. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 aims to ensure universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. This study assesses Nigeria’s performance in implementing SDG 6, identifying trends, gaps, and challenges in water and sanitation access. A qualitative review approach was adopted, relying on secondary data sources, including reports from the Federal Ministry of Water Resources, the National Bureau of Statistics, and international organisations such as the United Nations, WHO, UNICEF, and the World Bank. Peer-reviewed journal articles and academic publications were also analysed. Content analysis and comparative assessments with other African countries were conducted to provide broader insights. Findings indicate that, despite increased awareness and improvements in some areas, Nigeria’s progress remains uneven. Rural and conflict-affected regions continue to face persistent challenges due to inadequate infrastructure investment and governance inefficiencies. Strengthening governance frameworks, enhancing policy transparency, enforcing regulations, and boosting infrastructure investment—particularly in underserved regions—are recommended to accelerate progress. These measures are vital for achieving SDG 6 and advancing national development priorities.

Keywords

sustainable development goal 6 (SDG 6)water and sanitation infrastructure development policy enforcement multi-stakeholder collaboration Nigeria

Introduction

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), adopted by the United Nations in 2015, provide a global framework for addressing key development challenges, including poverty, inequality, environmental sustainability, and economic growth.^1,2 Among these, SDG 6 focuses on ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.³ Access to clean water and adequate sanitation is fundamental to human health, economic productivity, and environmental sustainability.^4,5 Water security is also a crucial determinant of public health outcomes, agricultural productivity, and industrial development, making it an essential component of national development strategies.

Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa, faces significant challenges in achieving SDG 6 due to rapid population growth, urbanisation, and inadequate water and sanitation infrastructure. Its water resources are increasingly strained by demographic pressures, climate change, and weak policy implementation.^6-10 Despite various commitments, progress remains uneven, marked by pronounced urban–rural disparities. Persistent issues such as poor infrastructure, inefficient service delivery, financial constraints, pollution, deforestation, and mismanaged waste continue to hinder universal access to clean water as presented in Figure 1.^11-15

Figure 1.

Water accessibility rate in Nigeria in 2019, 2020 and 2022.

Although various studies have examined policy frameworks and infrastructural interventions, gaps remain in understanding the long-term effectiveness of these initiatives and their localised impacts across diverse geopolitical zones in Nigeria. Furthermore, there is limited empirical evidence on the sustainability of government and donor-supported projects, especially in rural settings, where maintenance challenges and community ownership are often overlooked.

The Nigerian government has made considerable efforts to improve water and sanitation access, aligning with SDG 6.^4,16 These efforts encompass policy formulation, infrastructure development, partnerships, and regulatory enforcement.^6,17,18 Key policies such as the^19,20 were introduced to increase WASH investments and eliminate open defecation by 2025. Despite these frameworks, implementation remains fragmented, and a clear gap exists in the monitoring and evaluation of policy outcomes at subnational levels. For instance, the 2021 WASHNORM survey revealed that only 67% of Nigerians have access to basic drinking water services, while just 46% have access to basic sanitation.^7,21,22

Infrastructure development remains a major focus, including the construction of boreholes, water treatment plants, and public sanitation facilities.¹⁰ Yet, access remains uneven—only 39% of rural residents have access to basic drinking water services. This highlights a critical research gap: a need for more disaggregated data on water access and service reliability across rural and peri-urban areas, which are often underrepresented in national reports.

To strengthen institutional support, Nigeria has partnered with international organisations such as the World Bank, UNICEF, AfDB, and USAID. Notable programmes like SURWASH and PEWASH aim to accelerate WASH service delivery by 2030. Financial commitments have increased, with ₦141 billion allocated to water resources in the 2023 budget.²³ However, questions remain about the efficiency of fund utilisation, community engagement, and long-term project sustainability—areas that have received inadequate scholarly attention.

Regulatory frameworks have also been strengthened. Agencies such as NWRI and NESREA enforce water safety regulations, while the ODF Roadmap (2019) aims to end open defecation by 2025. Yet, as of 2023, only 84 out of 774 LGAs have been declared open defecation free, indicating a gap between policy ambition and field-level implementation, which warrants further empirical investigation.²³

Despite these efforts, major obstacles persist. Poor maintenance has caused the breakdown of many water systems,¹¹ and over-reliance on donor funding threatens project continuity.^24,25 Governance inefficiencies, including bureaucratic delays and weak enforcement, further hinder progress.²⁶ Climate change is exacerbating water scarcity through droughts and water source pollution.^27,28 Nigeria also faces severe economic losses—estimated at ₦455 billion annually—due to poor sanitation.^29-31

In conclusion, while significant strides have been made through government policies, infrastructure projects, and international partnerships, critical gaps remain in the areas of implementation, sustainability, local engagement, and impact evaluation. To meet SDG 6 targets, there is a pressing need for increased investment, improved governance, targeted rural interventions, and robust mechanisms for monitoring progress and community involvement.

The Nigerian government has introduced several policies and initiatives aimed at achieving SDG 6. These include the National Water Resources Policy, the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) programme, and various state-level initiatives to improve water access and sanitation services.³⁰ However, the effectiveness of these policies has been hindered by governance challenges, including bureaucratic inefficiencies, corruption, and inadequate coordination among relevant agencies.^4,32,33 highlight that despite increasing investments in water infrastructure, challenges such as inadequate funding, poor maintenance, and environmental threats persist. Additionally, the lack of community engagement and awareness regarding water conservation and sanitation practices further complicates the situation.

A comprehensive evaluation of Nigeria’s progress in implementing SDG 6 between 2016 to 2024 is essential to assess the country’s achievements, identify existing gaps, and propose strategies for accelerating progress before the 2030 deadline. Such an evaluation provides critical insights into how well national policies align with global targets and the extent to which they have been implemented effectively. It also sheds light on the socio-economic and environmental factors influencing the success of water and sanitation programmes.

This review aims to analyse Nigeria’s progress in the implementation of SDG 6 over the past 9 years by examining the policy frameworks, institutional mechanisms, achievements, challenges, and prospects for the future. The study also explores public perceptions of water and sanitation services and compares Nigeria’s progress with that of other African nations. By focussing on these areas, the review provides a clearer understanding of the extent to which Nigeria is progressing towards the goals of SDG 6 and the challenges that still need to be addressed. Additionally, the findings from this review will serve as a valuable resource for policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders working towards achieving universal access to clean water and sanitation in Nigeria. The study’s recommendations will also be crucial in informing future interventions and strategies aimed at overcoming the barriers to achieving SDG 6 within the stipulated timeframe.

Furthermore, this study seeks to evaluate how Nigeria’s water and sanitation sector aligns with international best practices and how lessons from other countries can be adapted to improve local outcomes. Comparative analyses with other developing nations, particularly in Africa, will provide insights into policy innovations, funding mechanisms, and institutional frameworks that have yielded positive results.

Equally important is the role of technology and innovation in enhancing water access and sanitation. The study will explore how Nigeria has integrated technological solutions such as smart water management systems, remote sensing, and digital monitoring tools in improving service delivery. The adoption of these technologies is essential in addressing challenges such as leakages, water theft, and inefficient distribution networks.

Additionally, climate change poses a growing threat to water availability in Nigeria, impacting both surface and groundwater resources. The study will assess the extent to which climate change adaptation measures have been incorporated into Nigeria’s water governance strategies. It will also examine the resilience of existing infrastructure and the role of sustainable practices such as rainwater harvesting, wastewater recycling, and conservation techniques in mitigating water scarcity.

By adopting a multidisciplinary approach, this review will provide a holistic assessment of Nigeria’s journey towards achieving SDG 6. It will not only highlight the successes and challenges but also propose actionable strategies that can accelerate progress. This will ensure that Nigeria remains on track to meet its SDG 6 commitments by 2030, ultimately improving the quality of life for millions of its citizens.

Status of Nigeria’s SDG 6 Reporting

Nigeria’s reporting on Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6), which targets universal access to clean water and sanitation, shows some structure but continues to face key challenges. The country has submitted Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) in 2017, 2020, and 2023, coordinated by the Office of the Senior Special Assistant to the President on SDGs (OSSAP-SDGs). These reports highlight alignment between national plans—such as the Economic Recovery and Growth Plan (ERGP) and the National Development Plan (2021-2025)—and global SDG targets. Sectoral policies like the National Water Resources Policy (2016) and the National Action Plan for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (2018-2030) further support these efforts.

Progress in data monitoring has been recorded through national surveys like WASHNORM (2018, 2021) and collaboration with the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme. The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), with support from partners such as UNICEF and the World Bank, coordinates data collection and harmonisation. However, challenges persist, including inconsistent data collection methods, lack of disaggregated subnational data, and irregular reporting intervals. These gaps hinder accurate assessment of regional disparities, particularly between urban and rural areas.

Despite some progress—such as reduced open defecation in a few states and infrastructure investments through programmes like PEWASH and SURWASH—access remains uneven. The 2021 WASHNORM report showed only 67% of Nigerians had access to basic drinking water, and just 46% had basic sanitation. The 2023 VNR highlighted ongoing issues such as poor infrastructure maintenance, limited funding, and weak institutional coordination. While there is evidence of commitment and collaboration, Nigeria’s SDG 6 reporting still lacks the timeliness, detail, and consistency required to support inclusive planning and accountability. Strengthening data systems and implementation frameworks is essential to achieving water and sanitation goals by 2030.

Theoretical Framework

To explore the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) in Nigeria, this study adopts a multi-theoretical framework incorporating Sustainability Theory, Institutional Theory, Stakeholder Theory, and the Human Rights-Based Approach (HRBA). Together, these perspectives offer a comprehensive lens for examining the policies, governance mechanisms, stakeholder dynamics, and rights-based considerations shaping access to clean water and sanitation.³⁴

Sustainability Theory emphasises the balance between environmental integrity, social equity, and economic viability to ensure long-term water availability. In Nigeria, this is particularly relevant given the pressures from urban expansion, climate variability, and population growth. For instance, the adoption of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in states like Lagos and Kano aims to coordinate water use across sectors, while eco-friendly sanitation models such as bio-digesters in parts of Abuja demonstrate attempts to align infrastructure with environmental sustainability.^34,35 This theory helps assess how effectively Nigeria incorporates sustainability principles into its national water and sanitation policies.

Institutional Theory focuses on the role of formal structures and governance systems in shaping service delivery. It evaluates the effectiveness of key institutions such as the Federal Ministry of Water Resources, state-level agencies, and regulatory commissions like the Nigeria Integrated Water Resources Management Commission. The contentious National Water Resources Bill, for example, illustrates both the potential and the challenges of centralised water governance.^36,37 This theory also sheds light on systemic issues like bureaucratic delays, inconsistent policies between federal and state governments, and the impact of corruption on water project implementation.³⁶

Stakeholder Theory explores the roles and interactions of various actors—government agencies, NGOs, private companies, donor organisations, and local communities—in delivering water and sanitation services. In practice, partnerships such as the collaboration between WaterAid Nigeria and local councils in Bauchi State demonstrate how community engagement and NGO support can improve rural water access.^38,39 Similarly, public-private partnerships (PPPs) in urban water supply, like those seen in Ogun State, highlight the influence of private investment and innovation in service delivery. This theory assesses how stakeholder alignment or conflict affects SDG 6 outcomes.

The Human Rights-Based Approach (HRBA) frames water and sanitation as legal entitlements rather than charitable provisions. It emphasises accountability, equality, and participation, particularly for vulnerable populations. For example, HRBA is reflected in targeted interventions such as the Kaduna State Water Law, which mandates pro-poor service delivery, and federal efforts to subsidise water connections in underserved urban slums.^30,40 The approach helps evaluate government actions in terms of non-discrimination, affordability, and accessibility, aligning domestic policy with international human rights standards.

By integrating these 4 perspectives, this framework facilitates a multidimensional analysis of Nigeria’s SDG 6 performance. It enables the identification of structural gaps, institutional constraints, and opportunities for reform, ultimately informing more effective, inclusive, and sustainable strategies for achieving universal access to water and sanitation.

Method of Study

This study follows the SRQR (Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research) guidelines to ensure clarity and transparency in reporting the data collection and analysis process.^41-43 The research adopts a qualitative approach, utilising secondary data to assess Nigeria’s progress towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6), which focuses on clean water and sanitation.

Data Sources and Selection Criteria

A wide range of secondary data sources were included in this analysis. The data were selected based on their relevance to SDG 6, credibility, and the period of analysis (2016-2024). The sources encompass official reports from national bodies such as the Federal Ministry of Water Resources and the National Bureau of Statistics, along with publications from global organisations including the United Nations, World Health Organisation (WHO), UNICEF, and the World Bank. In addition, peer-reviewed academic journals and articles were consulted to provide further context on water and sanitation issues in Nigeria. The inclusion criteria for documents were as follows: (1) official publications or credible sources addressing SDG 6, (2) reports published within the last 5 years, and (3) relevance to the Nigerian context. Documents outside the scope of SDG 6 or outdated reports were excluded.

Search Strategy

To locate the relevant documents, a targeted search was conducted using reputable academic databases, including Google Scholar and specific online repositories such as UNICEF and World Bank websites. Keywords such as “Nigeria water and sanitation SDG 6,” “water policy Nigeria,” and “sanitation progress Nigeria” were applied. Filters were used to narrow the results to publications from reputable organisations and peer-reviewed academic journals. This approach ensured a comprehensive selection of relevant sources, adhering to the transparency standards outlined in the SRQR guidelines for qualitative research.

Data Analysis

The data were analysed using content analysis, which is a systematic approach that enables the identification of recurring themes, trends, and challenges related to SDG 6. This method aligns with the SRQR guidelines, which recommend the use of clear coding strategies to interpret qualitative data. Initially, all relevant documents, including progress reports, policy documents, and statistical bulletins, were reviewed to extract key information on water supply systems, sanitation facilities, funding mechanisms, and institutional roles. The data were then organised into categories based on recurring themes related to SDG 6, such as governance, infrastructure development, funding constraints, and the role of international organisations.

A comparative analysis was also conducted to assess Nigeria’s performance relative to other African countries with similar development challenges. Countries like Ghana, Kenya, Ethiopia, and South Africa were selected based on their geographic proximity and comparable socio-economic conditions. Key indicators such as access to clean water, sanitation coverage, policy implementation, and institutional capacity were used for comparison. This comparative approach not only highlighted Nigeria’s achievements and shortcomings but also provided insights into effective strategies adopted by other countries facing similar challenges.

Trustworthiness and Rigour

The analysis followed established principles of trustworthiness in qualitative research, thereby ensuring the reliability and validity of the findings. Strict inclusion criteria guided data selection, with only relevant, credible, and up-to-date sources considered. Methodological transparency was maintained through clear documentation of the coding process, while themes derived from content analysis were rigorously cross-checked against existing literature. This systematic approach enabled a well-grounded understanding of the challenges and progress in Nigeria’s water and sanitation sector, consistent with the SRQR and COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) guidelines.

According to Walsh et al (2020), COREQ provides a comprehensive framework that ensures researchers report essential details regarding the design, conduct, and analysis of qualitative studies. Similarly,⁴⁴ noted that the guidelines enhance the quality and trustworthiness of qualitative research by promoting transparency and reproducibility. To further improve readability and coherence, ChatGPT—an openly accessible artificial intelligence tool—was partly employed to edit the work section by section, thereby strengthening clarity and overall presentation.

SDG 6 Targets and Indicators

SDG 6 comprises 6 key targets aimed at ensuring universal access to safe and affordable drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene, improving water quality, promoting sustainable water use, implementing integrated water resource management, and protecting and restoring water-related ecosystems. These targets include:

6.1: Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water.

6.2: Achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all, with a focus on vulnerable populations.

6.3: Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping, and increasing the proportion of wastewater safely treated.

6.4: Substantially increase water-use efficiency and address water scarcity.

6.5: Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM) at all levels.

6.6: Protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including rivers, lakes, and wetlands.

Key Performance Indicators to monitor progress include the percentage of the population using safely managed drinking water services, the proportion of wastewater safely treated, changes in water-use efficiency, and the extent of integrated water resources management implementation.

Globally, while significant progress has been made towards SDG 6, many countries, including Nigeria, still face major challenges. In sub-Saharan Africa, rural areas, in particular, lag behind in terms of access to clean water and sanitation.⁴⁵ Comparisons with other African countries like South Africa^46,47 and Ghana,^48,49 which have made significant strides in water governance and integrated water management, show that Nigeria has made progress in expanding access to clean water but continues to struggle with sanitation improvements and wastewater treatment.^4,5,10

Policy and Institutional Framework for SDG 6 in Nigeria

Nigeria has established several policies and institutional frameworks to guide the implementation of SDG 6.^7,50-52 These include the National Water Policy of 2016, which outlines the government’s strategy for water supply and sanitation, and the National Water Resources Bill, aimed at improving water governance. The National Action Plan for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH), introduced in 2018, provides a roadmap for achieving universal access to safe water and sanitation services. Additionally, state-level water supply and sanitation policies exist to address local challenges. The Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR) is the primary government body responsible for water policy and regulation, with support from State Water Boards (SWBs) and Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agencies (RUWASSAs), which manage urban and rural water services respectively. International and non-governmental organisations such as UNICEF, WHO, and the World Bank also provide significant support for water and sanitation initiatives.

However, despite these policies and institutional frameworks, challenges persist in implementation due to inadequate funding,^53,54,55 weak enforcement of regulations,⁵⁶ and coordination issues among stakeholders.^5,26 Addressing these challenges requires strengthening policy enforcement, improving inter-agency collaboration, and increasing investment in infrastructure. These actions are essential to achieving the SDG 6 targets in Nigeria.

Progress and Achievements (2016-2024)

Nigeria has made significant progress in various aspects of SDG 6 implementation, particularly in enhancing access to clean water, improving sanitation, managing water quality, and advancing water resource management.

Regarding access to clean water (Target 6.1), Nigeria has made strides through the expansion of water supply infrastructure.⁵⁶ This expansion has improved access to clean water in urban areas, which are often better equipped to handle large-scale water distribution projects. In rural areas, programmes such as the Partnership for Expanded Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene (PEWASH) initiative have made substantial contributions to increasing access to potable water. This initiative has focussed on constructing boreholes and developing other sustainable water supply systems to serve communities that were previously underserved. Despite these efforts, disparities still exist, especially in remote and conflict-affected areas, where access remains inconsistent.^7,10

On the sanitation and hygiene front (Target 6.2), there has been a noticeable decline in open defecation rates, which has been a significant challenge for Nigeria.⁵⁷ This improvement is largely due to initiatives such as the Clean Nigeria Campaign (CNC) with the aim of ending open defecation by 2025.⁵⁸ This initiative has enhanced the construction of toilets and raises awareness about the importance of proper sanitation and hygiene.⁵⁹ It was reported that 120 out of the 774 Local Government Areas in the country have been declared Open Defecation Free (ODF), with Jigawa State achieving statewide ODF status.^60,61 About 10 568 sanitation facilities were reportedly provided in institutions and public places across 127 Local Government Areas, serving approximately 550 820 individuals.^14,62 The campaign has successfully encouraged communities, both urban and rural, to adopt better sanitation practices, thereby reducing the risks associated with waterborne diseases. As of March 2024, the Federal Ministry of Water Resources and Sanitation reported the construction of 6761 water schemes across urban, semi-urban, and rural areas, benefitting approximately 32 million Nigerians. Furthermore, The Partnership for Expanded Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene (PEWASH) programme completed its first phase by constructing 2190 boreholes, serving over 2 million people.⁵⁸ The second phase was affirmed to be in progress as at the time of this review. However, the adoption of these practices remains uneven, and more widespread behavioural change is needed to achieve universal sanitation.^62,63

Efforts of Some State Governments Towards Water and Sanitation Facilities Accessibility

Apart from the Federal government efforts, state administrations have also enhanced access to potable water and sanitation facilities. For instance, Federal Capital Territory (FCT) administration allocated ₦26.6 billion in its 2024 budget to the FCT Water Board and Abuja Environmental Protection Board, aiming to improve water treatment and maintain environmental health.⁶⁴

Similarly, Katsina State prioritised water resources in its 2024 budget, dedicating over ₦67 billion to the sector, reflecting a significant commitment to improving water accessibility.⁶⁵ In Jigawa State, the government approved ₦5 billion in January 2024 to procure diesel and other services to enhance access to potable drinking water across its 27 local government areas.⁶⁵ These efforts, alongside other state-level initiatives, underscore a nationwide commitment to improving water and sanitation services, contributing to the broader goal of achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6: ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030.

In Oyo State, the Asejire Reservoir, constructed in the late 1960s on the Osun River, serves as a primary water source for Ibadan. In 2023, the state government partnered with an international company to rehabilitate the Asejire Water Dam, aiming to enhance water supply to Ibadan and surrounding areas. Additionally, the African Development Bank approved an Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Project in Ibadan in 2009, which included the installation of water metres, hygiene promotion, and the construction of toilets in public spaces.

Osun State has also made significant efforts to improve water accessibility. The Erinle Reservoir, also known as the Owalla Reservoir, was constructed in 1989 to enhance water supply and prevent flooding. It supports the Osogbo Ede Water Expansion Scheme, benefitting cities like Osogbo, Ede, Ife, and other communities in Osun State. Furthermore, the African Development Bank financed rural water and sanitation projects in Osun State, aiming to increase the functionality of water supply and sanitation facilities.

Ondo State has participated in national programmes aimed at improving water and sanitation services. While specific projects in the state during this period are not detailed in available sources, collaborations with international organisations and federal initiatives have contributed to enhancing water supply and sanitation infrastructure in the region.

In Imo State, after 24 years without potable water, the state government under Governor Hope Uzodinma revitalised the urban Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) sector in 2020. This led to the rehabilitation of the Otamiri Waterworks and other facilities managed by the Imo State Water and Sewerage Corporation (ISWSC), restoring access to safe water for residents. Additionally, the Nigeria Erosion and Watershed Management Project (NEWMAP), a World Bank-assisted initiative, included Imo State among its pilot states in 2013. The project addressed severe gully erosion, land degradation, and environmental insecurity, contributing to improved water management and infrastructure.

Benue State has also taken steps to improve water accessibility. In Makurdi, the state capital, only about 25% to 30% of the population had access to water services as of 2012, leading many residents to rely on untreated water from the Benue River. To address this issue, the Greater Makurdi Waterworks Project was initiated, which included the construction of a water treatment plant. However, challenges such as inadequate distribution networks have hindered optimal utilisation of the plant’s capacity.

Rivers State has focussed on urban water supply and sanitation projects. The Port Harcourt Water Supply and Sanitation Project aimed to provide sustainable water services to Port Harcourt and Obio-Akpor local government areas. This project involved rehabilitating and upgrading facilities in Rumuola to increase capacity to 187 000 cubic metres per day. Furthermore, in 2012, Rivers State enacted the Water Sector Development Law and Water and Sanitation Policy, leading to the establishment of specialised agencies such as the Port Harcourt Water Corporation (PHWC), Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency (RWSSA), and the Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Agency (STWSSA). These agencies were tasked with ensuring potable water provision and wastewater treatment services across the state.

Between 2016 to 2024, Bayelsa, Delta, and Plateau States undertook various initiatives to enhance access to water and sanitation facilities, with notable statistics highlighting both challenges and progress.

In Bayelsa State, despite being predominantly water-rich, the state has faced significant challenges in providing clean water and adequate sanitation to its residents. A study conducted in the island community of Amassoma revealed that only 33% of households were aware of the benefits of improved water supply, and a mere 21.9% recognised the importance of sanitation and hygiene practices. Furthermore, the 2022 floods severely impacted the state, affecting approximately 1.3 million people, displacing around 1.2 million, and resulting in 96 fatalities. These challenges highlight the urgent need for improved water infrastructure and flood management systems.

Delta State has also made strides in improving water accessibility. In 2021, it was selected as 1 of 7 states to benefit from the World Bank’s $700 million loan designated for specific water projects across Nigeria, aiming to address water scarcity and improve sanitation facilities. Additionally, between November 26 to December 7, 2022, floods affected 78 640 individuals across 18 locations in the state, underscoring the need for resilient water infrastructure to mitigate climate-related disasters.

Plateau State has demonstrated a strong commitment to improving water and sanitation services. In 2019, the state government pledged approximately $75.8 million towards clean water initiatives, sanitation, and efforts to end open defecation. This investment reflects the state’s dedication to enhancing public health and environmental conditions for its residents, aligning with national and global sustainable development goals.

In terms of water quality and wastewater management (Target 6.3), there has been some progress in water treatment and pollution control. Efforts have been made to improve the treatment of water, especially in urban areas, where centralised water treatment plants have been upgraded and modernised. However, wastewater management remains a persistent challenge, with many regions lacking adequate infrastructure for safe wastewater treatment and disposal. The growing population and increasing urbanisation further exacerbate this issue, leading to pollution and contamination of water sources.^66,67 The government has made efforts to address this, but comprehensive solutions are still needed to ensure the safe management of wastewater across the country.

Finally, efforts towards water resource management (Targets 6.4-6.6) have been a key focus for Nigeria, with steps taken towards implementing integrated water resources management (IWRM). These efforts have led to improved planning and coordination between various levels of government and stakeholders involved in water management. However, while progress has been made in creating frameworks for managing water resources, enforcement remains weak.^68,69 Challenges such as inadequate institutional capacity, insufficient funding, and overlapping responsibilities between different agencies have hindered the effective implementation of water resource management strategies. As a result, while planning has improved, the actual management of water resources still faces significant hurdles that need to be addressed for long-term sustainability.

In summary, while Nigeria has made substantial progress in achieving SDG 6, there are still significant challenges to overcome, particularly in rural areas, wastewater management, and the enforcement of water resource management policies. Further investments in infrastructure, greater public awareness, and stronger governance mechanisms are essential for sustaining and accelerating progress towards the 2030 targets.

Challenges and Barriers to SDG 6 Implementation

Despite the progress made towards achieving SDG 6 in Nigeria, several challenges continue to impede the full implementation of water and sanitation objectives, particularly in rural areas and less-developed regions of the country. One of the most significant obstacles is infrastructural deficiencies. While urban areas have seen some improvements in water supply and sanitation infrastructure, many rural communities still lack access to basic water services. In these areas, traditional water sources, such as streams and wells, are often contaminated, posing significant health risks. The absence of adequate infrastructure in these regions according to,⁴⁵ can be attributed to several factors, including limited investment, lack of maintenance of existing systems, and logistical challenges associated with providing services to remote and dispersed populations.

Financial constraints have played a central role in limiting Nigeria’s progress towards achieving SDG 6, a trend clearly illustrated in Figure 2. Although funding for water and sanitation has shown slight increases between 2019 to 2024, the overall financial commitment remains inadequate when compared to the scale of the challenge and the needs of a rapidly growing population.^70,71 The incremental rise in budgetary allocations has not translated into meaningful improvements in service delivery, largely due to inefficient policy implementation and weak institutional capacity.

Figure 2.

Trends in water and sanitation funding in Nigeria (2019-2024).

This funding shortfall is symptomatic of broader policy failures. On one hand, strategic plans often overpromise without aligning with realistic financial commitments. On the other, even the limited resources allocated to the sector are frequently lost to corruption, procurement inefficiencies, and poor project oversight.^13,28 These issues reflect structural weaknesses in governance, where policies exist on paper but lack the institutional mechanisms and political will necessary for effective execution.

Furthermore, the inconsistency in funding patterns shown in Figure 2 underscores the absence of long-term planning. Without sustained and predictable investment, essential projects—such as the construction of water treatment plants, expansion of piped water networks, and upgrading of sanitation facilities—face frequent delays or are left incomplete.^72,73 This results not only in wasted resources but also in eroded public trust and limited impact on access to safe water and sanitation.^74-76 Ultimately, the mismatch between funding trends and policy ambitions reveals a critical gap that must be addressed through stronger financial planning, transparency, and institutional reform.

Another critical challenge to SDG 6 implementation in Nigeria is the policy and governance issues that persist within the water sector.^11,77 Despite the existence of various policies aimed at improving water and sanitation services, weak enforcement remains a major barrier to progress. Regulatory frameworks are often not adequately implemented or monitored, allowing for non-compliance and poor enforcement of standards.^8,78 Additionally, overlapping responsibilities among different government agencies, such as the Federal Ministry of Water Resources, State Water Boards, and Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agencies, have created inefficiencies.¹⁰ These agencies often lack the coordination needed to deliver services effectively, leading to fragmented efforts and duplication of resources.³² The lack of clear accountability and streamlined governance structures has hindered the effective delivery of water and sanitation services.⁷⁹

Environmental and climate change impacts, according to,¹³ also pose significant threats to the availability of water resources in Nigeria. Increasing droughts, desertification, and pollution have exacerbated the challenge of ensuring reliable access to clean water, particularly in northern regions of the country.^72,80,81 In the report presented by^82,83 in 2018, it was noted that as water sources such as rivers and lakes become increasingly depleted due to droughts and reduced rainfall, the pressure on available water resources intensifies. Furthermore, pollution from industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and inadequate wastewater management has compromised the quality of water in many parts of the country.^80,84 These environmental challenges make it difficult for Nigeria to achieve SDG 6, especially in regions that are already facing water scarcity.

Finally, socioeconomic and cultural barriers continue to impede progress towards achieving SDG 6.^21,68 Public awareness of proper water, sanitation, and hygiene practices remains inconsistent across regions. While some urban communities have benefitted from awareness campaigns, many rural populations still lack basic knowledge of safe sanitation practices, leading to continued reliance on unhygienic water storage methods, open defecation, and inadequate waste disposal.^85,86 In some cases, cultural beliefs and practices also contribute to the reluctance to adopt modern sanitation technologies or behaviours, further complicating efforts to improve public health.^17,87 Additionally, economic barriers, such as the inability of low-income households to afford the cost of accessing clean water, exacerbate the challenge of achieving universal access to water and sanitation.^86-88

Resolving these challenges requires a comprehensive and multi-dimensional approach that includes improving infrastructure, increasing financial investment, enhancing governance, addressing environmental and climate change issues, and raising public awareness. By tackling these barriers, Nigeria can move closer to meeting its SDG 6 targets and ensuring that all citizens have access to clean water and sanitation services by 2030.

Impact Assessment and Public Perception

Evaluating Nigeria’s progress in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6)—which aims to ensure clean water and sanitation for all—requires a comprehensive assessment of both policy effectiveness and public perception. The impact of government initiatives, funding mechanisms, and infrastructural development plays a critical role in determining the success of SDG 6 implementation.³³ Public awareness and acceptance of water and sanitation policies also influence the overall effectiveness of these interventions, impacting how well the goals are achieved.

Effectiveness of Policies

Nigeria has implemented several policies to improve water access and sanitation, including the National Water Resources Policy of 2016 and the National Open Defecation-Free (ODF) Roadmap. While these policies have contributed to improvements in access to clean water, the impact varies significantly across different regions of the country.^10,89 In urban areas like Lagos and Abuja, the expansion of piped water supply systems and wastewater treatment facilities has made a noticeable difference.^90,91 However, challenges remain in maintaining infrastructure, addressing affordability, and ensuring equitable access to all urban dwellers. In contrast, many rural areas still rely on traditional water sources, which are often contaminated, leading to health risks.^22,92 These communities face slow progress due to inadequate funding and weak policy enforcement.

Geographic disparities further complicate the implementation of SDG 6 according to.^5,93 In northern states, water access is more challenging due to factors like climatic conditions, desertification, and conflict-related displacement.²⁴ In contrast, the southern states, which benefit from more consistent rainfall and a more extensive network of water supply systems, face fewer challenges. Despite some successes, the lack of consistent maintenance of water facilities, corruption in funding allocations, and weak enforcement of sanitation regulations continue to hinder the full realisation of SDG 6 in Nigeria.^94-96

Public Awareness and Perception

Public perception of Nigeria’s water and sanitation services is shaped by direct experiences with service delivery, the effectiveness of awareness campaigns, and community engagement in government-led initiatives.⁹⁷ Surveys and reports indicate mixed reactions to these services. On the positive side,^98,99 observed that awareness campaigns have had success in promoting hygiene practices, particularly in reducing the prevalence of waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid,⁵ among other water-borne diseases. Initiatives like the “Clean Nigeria: Use the Toilet” campaign have contributed to a shift in behavioural practices, encouraging better sanitation habits.^100,101 However, the effectiveness of these campaigns is often limited, especially in rural areas⁹¹ where many communities remain uninformed about proper sanitation practices. Some regions still rely on unsafe traditional water storage methods, exacerbating health risks.⁹⁹

Moreover,⁵² established that language barriers and low literacy rates in rural populations further impede the reach of awareness campaigns. This observation was further corroborated by.^77,102 In addition,¹⁰³ and many citizens express distrust in government-led water projects.⁹⁴ This scepticism, according to^94,104 is often rooted in the frequent failure of projects, such as the abandonment of newly constructed boreholes and sanitation facilities due to poor maintenance or mismanagement.

Case Studies: Successes and Failures

A closer look at case studies provides insights into both achievements and gaps in the implementation of SDG 6 in Nigeria. Success stories include the installation of solar-powered boreholes in rural areas of Kano,¹⁰⁵ Kebbi,⁹⁶ and Ekiti¹⁰⁶ states, which have significantly improved water availability, particularly in off-grid communities.¹⁰⁶ revealed that partnerships with international organisations such as UNICEF and the World Bank have supported sanitation initiatives, helping reduce open defecation rates in some states. This was further corroborated by.⁷⁷

However, there have been notable failures as well. Large-scale water projects like the Greater Abuja Water Supply Scheme have faced delays due to funding mismanagement and administrative bottlenecks. Similarly, projects in Benue and Ondo states, such as incomplete water treatment plants, demonstrate inefficiencies in policy execution and maintenance.^59,107 These failures highlight systemic issues in project planning and management, which continue to undermine the effectiveness of Nigeria’s water and sanitation policies.

Comparative Analysis with Other Countries

To better understand Nigeria’s progress in achieving SDG 6, a comparative analysis with other African nations is essential as presented in Table 1. Countries like South Africa and Ghana have made considerable advancements in the implementation of SDG 6,^33,49 providing valuable lessons for Nigeria.

Table 1.

Comparative Analysis of SDG 6 Implementation Between Nigeria and 2 Countries.

Country	Key strategies/approaches	Achievements	References
Nigeria	Limited implementation of SDG 6 policies; fragmented water governance	Slow progress in clean water and sanitation access; inconsistent community involvement	— (Comparative basis)
South Africa	Strong legal and regulatory frameworks; structured water governance model	Higher access to clean water and sanitation; effective regulatory enforcement	^{26, 49}
Ghana	Community-led water management systems; empowerment of local governments and communities	Sustainable small-scale water projects; increased local participation	^{49, 108}

In South Africa, a well-structured water governance model, backed by robust legal frameworks and strict regulatory enforcement, has contributed to higher levels of access to clean water and sanitation (Adom and Simatele, 2024). Similarly, according to,⁴⁹ Ghana has made significant strides by implementing community-led water management systems, empowering local governments and communities to manage small-scale water projects, thereby ensuring sustainability and increased local involvement.

Lessons for Nigeria

To improve the implementation of SDG 6 in Nigeria, it is essential to adopt successful strategies from other countries that have made notable advancements in water and sanitation management. Key approaches that Nigeria can learn from include enhanced funding mechanisms, stronger regulatory enforcement, and greater community participation in water and sanitation projects.

One of the most critical aspects of improving water and sanitation in Nigeria is securing enhanced funding mechanisms. A dedicated water sector fund, similar to the one established by Ghana, could play a crucial role in providing sustained financial resources for water and sanitation initiatives.^48,108 revealed that Ghana’s Water Fund has proven effective in ensuring that there are consistent and adequate financial flows to support water-related projects, especially in rural and underserved areas. In Nigeria, the establishment of a similar fund could help address the chronic underfunding of water projects, which has long been a significant barrier to the expansion and maintenance of water infrastructure.¹⁰⁹ This fund could be used to finance the construction of new water treatment plants, the rehabilitation of existing infrastructure, and the scaling up of sanitation initiatives. Additionally, the government could explore innovative financing models, such as public-private partnerships (PPPs),⁷⁶ to attract private sector investment, ensuring that the water sector is not solely reliant on public funds.

Another key strategy for improving SDG 6 implementation is stronger regulatory enforcement.¹¹⁰ Nigeria’s existing water governance frameworks, such as the National Water Resources Bill, need to be strengthened and rigorously enforced at all levels of government. According to¹¹¹ the bill aims to regulate water resources and ensure their sustainable management, but its impact has been limited by weak enforcement mechanisms. According to the duo, strengthening this bill would ensure that water resources are managed effectively and sustainably, reducing wastage and preventing the over-extraction of water.^40,112 added that strict enforcement of regulations on water quality, wastewater treatment, and sanitation standards would help mitigate pollution and ensure that water services are safe and reliable. Ensuring compliance with these regulations, according to¹¹² would require a concerted effort to build the capacity of regulatory agencies, improve monitoring systems, and introduce penalties for non-compliance. This would enhance greater accountability and promote viable trust in the government’s ability to manage water and sanitation services effectively.

Lastly, community participation is a crucial element in ensuring the sustainability and effectiveness of water and sanitation projects.⁸⁹ According to,⁷⁸ encouraging community-led initiatives can help address local water challenges more effectively by involving the people who are directly affected by water issues in decision-making and project implementation. In countries like Ghana, community-based water management systems have empowered local governments and communities to take ownership of small-scale water projects, resulting in improved sustainability and local relevance.¹⁰⁸ In Nigeria, fostering community participation in the planning, implementation, and maintenance of water and sanitation projects would not only enhance the effectiveness of these projects but also ensure that local needs are properly addressed.²⁸ By engaging communities in these initiatives, Nigeria can tap into local knowledge and resources, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility among the people. Moreover, involving communities in the design and management of projects would help ensure that solutions are culturally appropriate and that communities are more committed to the sustainable long-term success of the projects.

Incorporating these strategies—enhancing funding mechanisms, strengthening regulatory enforcement, and promoting community participation—can help Nigeria overcome the challenges it faces in implementing SDG 6. These approaches have been successful in other countries and offer valuable lessons that can be adapted to Nigeria’s unique context. By adopting these strategies, Nigeria can create a more robust and sustainable water and sanitation system that benefits all its citizens, especially those in underserved rural areas.

Prospects and Recommendations

To accelerate Nigeria’s progress towards achieving SDG 6 by 2030, a comprehensive and multi-faceted approach is necessary. This approach must address various aspects of the country’s water and sanitation challenges, including policy reform, infrastructure development, technological innovation, and increased stakeholder engagement. The following key recommendations are crucial for ensuring that Nigeria meets its water and sanitation goals:

Strengthening Policy Execution and Monitoring

One of the critical areas requiring attention is the execution and monitoring of water policies.⁴ Although Nigeria has developed several policies aimed at improving water access and sanitation, there has been a persistent issue with implementation and monitoring.^24,26 To ensure that water projects are completed on time and maintained properly, it is essential to establish stricter monitoring mechanisms.^53,113 These mechanisms would provide real-time oversight and help identify potential delays or inefficiencies early in the process, enabling corrective actions to be taken before projects are compromised. In addition,^114,88,115 reiterated that accountability measures should be introduced at all levels of government and in project execution. These measures would help reduce corruption and mismanagement of funds, which have historically hampered the success of water projects. By holding stakeholders accountable as reported by^101,116 Nigeria could significantly improve the effectiveness of its water and sanitation policies and ensure that public resources are used efficiently.

Increasing Investments in Water Infrastructure

A critical challenge in Nigeria’s water sector is the lack of sufficient investment in water infrastructure, particularly in rural areas a where access to clean water remains limited.^10,53,92 To address this, Nigeria must allocate higher budgetary funding to the water sector, ensuring that financial resources are directed towards the construction, maintenance, and expansion of water facilities. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) could also play a crucial role in stimulating investments.^111,117 By collaborating with the private sector, Nigeria could secure the necessary funding for large-scale infrastructure projects, such as expanding water treatment plants, installing additional boreholes, and improving waste management systems.^97,118 In addition, engaging the private sector could bring in expertise and innovation that would help the country improve the efficiency and sustainability of its water infrastructure.^74,116 in their reports, had to reiterate that with improvement in water infrastructure, Nigeria can significantly increase the coverage and access to clean water and sanitation, particularly and more importantly, in underserved rural communities.

Leveraging Technology for Smart Water Management

To improve the efficiency and effectiveness of water resource management, Nigeria must adopt digital systems for monitoring water supply and consumption.^92,118,119 These systems could provide real-time data on water use, leakages, and other inefficiencies, enabling better management of water resources and reducing waste. Additionally, advanced technologies such as satellite imaging and artificial intelligence (AI) can be used to detect water contamination and predict potential risks to water quality.^82,115,120 Satellite imaging could help identify sources of pollution and monitor the health of water bodies, while AI could analyse large datasets to optimise water distribution and waste management. By embracing these innovative technologies, Nigeria can enhance its ability to monitor water systems and respond proactively to emerging challenges. According to^121,122 Smart water management systems would also support the government in implementing sustainable water practices that align with SDG 6, ensuring long-term access to clean water. This assertion is still in agreement with.^119,122

Enhancing Community Engagement

Finally, community engagement is essential for the successful implementation of water and sanitation initiatives.^78,89 Education and awareness campaigns are necessary to ensure that local populations understand the importance of clean water, proper sanitation, and hygiene. Such campaigns should be tailored to address the specific needs and challenges of different communities, ensuring that messages resonate with local cultures and practices. In many areas, particularly in rural and underserved regions, there is a lack of awareness about basic hygiene and sanitation practices, which can contribute to the spread of waterborne diseases. By increasing awareness and providing education on the importance of sanitation, Nigeria can empower communities to take ownership of their water and sanitation systems.^4,5,123 Furthermore, collaboration with local non-governmental organisations (NGOs) is critical to the success of community-driven solutions.^93,124,125 NGOs, with their deep knowledge of local contexts, can facilitate the implementation of projects that reflect the needs and priorities of communities. When communities are actively involved in decision-making and project implementation, water and sanitation interventions are more likely to be sustainable and effective.^93,126

Nigeria can substantially speed up progress towards SDG 6 by implementing these recommendations. Enhancing policy execution, boosting investments in infrastructure, utilising technology for improved water management, and fostering community engagement are crucial elements of a holistic strategy to tackle the country’s water and sanitation challenges. By adopting these measures, Nigeria can advance towards universal access to clean water and sanitation by 2030, leading to better public health, increased economic productivity, and greater environmental sustainability.

Summary of the Findings

Progress in Urban Areas

Access to clean water and improved sanitation has increased in some urban areas, with reduced open defecation and better hygiene practices.

Persistent Rural Disparities

Many rural areas still lack safe water and sanitation, highlighting major urban–rural inequalities in service delivery.

Governance Challenges

Weak policy enforcement, poor coordination, and limited accountability continue to hinder effective water governance.

Funding Constraints

Water and sanitation projects suffer from inadequate funding and low investment, especially in high-need areas.

Infrastructure Gaps

Slow infrastructure development, especially in rural and conflict-prone areas, limits access to clean water and sanitation.

Need for Policy Reform and Enforcement

Stronger enforcement, transparency, and accountability are essential for effective implementation of water-related policies.

Lessons from Other Countries

South Africa and Ghana show that good governance and innovative financing can improve water access—Nigeria can learn from them.

Importance of Multi-Stakeholder Collaboration

Inclusive collaboration with communities, private sector, and civil society boosts sustainability and service delivery.

Path Forward

Nigeria must strengthen governance, invest in infrastructure, adopt proven models, and foster collaboration to meet SDG 6 targets.

Conclusion and Recommendation

While Nigeria has made significant progress towards achieving SDG 6, challenges persist, particularly in rural and underserved areas where access to clean water and sanitation remains limited. Weak governance, inadequate funding, and slow infrastructure development continue to hinder the achievement of the 2030 targets. To overcome these barriers, several actions must be taken.

First, strengthening governance and accountability frameworks is essential. The Federal Ministry of Water Resources, along with State Water Agencies, must enforce the National Water Resources Bill and establish independent monitoring bodies to track project implementation. Funding disbursements should be tied to performance indicators, and public reports should be regularly published to ensure transparency.

Second, increased and prioritised investment in water and sanitation is critical. The Ministry of Finance, in collaboration with international development partners and the private sector, should allocate a fixed percentage of the national budget to water projects, with a particular focus on rural and conflict-affected areas. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) should be promoted to enhance infrastructure development, and targeted subsidies should be provided to underserved communities to ensure affordable access to water and sanitation services.

Third, rural and conflict-affected regions require immediate attention. The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agencies (RUWASSAs), local governments, and NGOs should implement decentralised, solar-powered water systems and mobile sanitation units in remote areas. Local technicians should be trained to maintain and manage these systems, fostering community ownership and sustainability.

Fourth, Nigeria should adopt best practices from countries like South Africa and Ghana, which have effectively managed their water resources through community-driven solutions and innovative financing. The National Council on Water Resources and the Federal Ministry of Planning should adapt these successful models into Nigeria’s water management strategies, tailoring them to local needs.

Finally, promoting multi-stakeholder collaboration is crucial to ensuring the success of water and sanitation projects. Government agencies, civil society organisations (CSOs), the private sector, and local communities must work together. Stakeholder forums at the federal, state, and local levels should be established to ensure that water and sanitation projects are inclusive and responsive to local needs. Partnerships with NGOs should also be strengthened to improve hygiene education and public awareness.

By taking these proactive steps—strengthening governance, increasing investment, focussing on rural areas, adopting successful models, and fostering collaboration—Nigeria can overcome the existing barriers and move closer to achieving universal access to clean water and sanitation, ultimately improving public health and contributing to sustainable development.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Timothy O. Ogunbode

Author Contributions

TOO: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Investigation, resources, and Formal analysis, Investigation and Proofreading, Editing and Writing the final draft.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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