Abstract
This study explores the snacking experiences of customers with diabetes in the food service industry through the lens of transformative service research (TSR) and nudge theory. Despite the growing importance of inclusive service design, limited research has examined how food service providers address the unique dietary needs of diabetic patrons. By focusing on snacking, a critical component of diabetic health management, this research identifies key perceptions and challenges in diabetic customers’ snacking experiences in various types of food service outlets, revealing barriers to, and opportunities for, improving service provision. Using qualitative data from 22 diabetics, we propose actionable nudges to enhance inclusivity and well-being in terms of snacking provision in the food service industry, with associated implications for the wider hospitality industry. Findings highlight how reimagined service designs, including personalized and healthier snack options, can improve the overall food environment while fostering both customer wellbeing and greater awareness of diabetes as a non-observable disease. This study contributes to hospitality literature by advocating for accessible and health-conscious service innovations that benefit diabetic customers as well as the broader community.
Highlights
This study reveals diabetic snacking barriers in diverse food service settings.
We propose nudges to enhance inclusive, health focused service design.
We advance Transformative Service Research by linking food choices to invisible health conditions.
Introduction
Food is a focal aspect of tourism and hospitality experiences. The extant literature identifies consumer food preferences in different hospitality settings (e.g., Akhoondnejad et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2023), with an emerging research strand examining consumers with food intolerances or allergies as part of inclusive service (Bryan-Endres et al., 2021). While consumers are motivated to try new food as part of their travel experiences (Y. G. Kim & Eves, 2012), food related health concerns during travel are also well documented (Cohen & Avieli, 2004). However, not all health-related food concerns are the same. Unlike allergies, which often require avoidance of specific ingredients, or obesity (Carins et al., 2021; Poria et al., 2019), which is generally related to broader caloric intake patterns, diabetes demands continuous regulation of blood glucose through both food timing and content (Elfrink et al., 2014). This includes a delicate balance of carbohydrate intake, physical activity, and medication. Importantly, diabetic consumers are required to eat at regular intervals and avoid certain types of sugar-laden or overly processed foods to stay healthy. These challenges are not just about the availability of food suitable for diabetics, but also about the predictability, portion control, and timing of food intake. These factors become particularly problematic and challenging when snacking outside the home in settings such as hospitality (Dhinagaran et al., 2021), including food service outlets. This sets diabetic customers apart from those with other food-related health conditions, and requires tailored responses from all food service providers as part of inclusive service provision. However, tourism and hospitality studies have only recently begun to consider the needs of customers with physical (Bi et al., 2007; Kalargyrou et al., 2018; Park & Kim, 2024; Randle & Dolnicar, 2019; Zhang et al., 2019) and/or psychological impairments (Pratt & Tolkach, 2022), with a view to designing more accessible and inclusive experiences to improve satisfaction and wellbeing. This approach aligns with the transformative service research (TSR) paradigm, which suggests that service research needs to focus on “creating, uplifting changes and improvements in the wellbeing of consumers, considering individuals, communities and ecosystems” (L. Anderson, Ostrom, et al., 2013, p. 1207). Viewed through this lens, wellbeing is dependent on how well services are designed to improve the access, literacy, health, and happiness of consumers (S. Anderson, Nasr, & Rayburn, 2018; L. Anderson, Ostrom, et al., 2013).
Given the scant attention in the hospitality literature to service provision for diabetic customers, there is a need for both service providers and researchers to consider improving inclusivity and wellbeing for this segment (Dhinagaran et al., 2021; Viljoen & Kruger, 2024). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), diabetes is “a chronic, metabolic disease characterized by elevated levels of blood glucose (or blood sugar), which leads over time to serious damage to the heart, blood vessels, eyes, kidneys, and nerves” (World Health Organization [WHO], 2023, p. 5). Classified as having an invisible disability under the Americans With Disabilities Act (1990), those with diabetes constitute an emerging and important segment of hospitality customers. For instance, diabetic travelers’ needs for relaxation and medical service increased significantly from 2001 to 2011 (Elfrink et al., 2014), highlighting the distinct nature of their service requirements compared to mainstream travelers. Given their need for diet control and their ongoing health issues, diabetic customers often experience more challenges than do other customers in accessing appropriate and sufficient dietary choices at food service outlets when traveling (Adu et al., 2019; Hui et al., 2014; Shultz et al., 2001). Diabetic customers encounter unique food challenges when dining out in contrast to eating at home, because they have limited control over food preparation and availability in service settings, as well as limited information on food choices (Viljoen & Kruger, 2024). These challenges can be addressed through an important facet of TSR, which seeks to use human centered approaches in the design of service operations management (i.e., processes, procedures), and social aspects of service, to improve consumer experiences and wellbeing (S. Anderson, Nasr, & Rayburn, 2018).
Without focusing on the wellbeing of diabetic customers, food service providers can create negative value by increasing the intake of unwholesome food options, such as snacks that are detrimental to their customers’ health. For example, premade foods without clear information about their content can contribute to health issues for diabetic customers. Several studies have investigated the potential link between dining out, nutritional intake, and increased health risks such as diabetes (Dhinagaran et al., 2021; Dominguez et al., 2014; Zong et al., 2016), and people who often eat meals away from home (e.g., at restaurants and cafes) and their overall death risk, including those with diabetes (Du et al., 2021). However, it remains unclear how specific elements of food provision, especially snacks—which play a vital role in stabilizing blood sugar levels—can either exacerbate or mitigate health issues for diabetic individuals in food service settings. Unlike the general dietary adjustments required by other health-impaired groups, diabetic customers face acute health risks (such as hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia) from irregular or inappropriate snacking, which can escalate rapidly if left unaddressed during travel. As many factors—for example the unavailability of healthy food options in service settings, food with high sugar and sodium content (Jiang & Lee, 2017), large portion sizes (Sharmin et al., 2017), and food prepared with more spices and seasonings to satisfy customers with different food tastes (Choi et al., 2019)—can exacerbate health issues for diabetics, examining the role of food and snacking options in this context remains a significant gap in the hospitality literature. The extant literature tends to focus on customer groups such as the obese (Carins et al., 2021; Poria et al., 2019) and those requiring vegan and vegetarian options (Ahn, 2024; Rivera & Shani, 2013), rather than on diabetics. Focusing on diabetics is important because, as Viljoen and Kruger (2024) found, dining out presents considerable challenges requiring them to balance the pleasure of food choices with potential health risks. With these challenges defined, the unique issues faced by diabetic consumers in food service outlets, including full-service restaurants, become quickly evident. Thus, using a TSR lens, this study aimed to understand the snacking needs and experiences of diabetic customers within the food service industry, including a range of hospitality settings, in order to improve service design.
While snacking provision is grounded in service experiences associated with food service settings, diabetic customers have a responsibility to use preventive measures in terms of their food requirements and choices (Choudhary, 2004) when traveling. Not following prescribed requirements can spoil trips and even lead to needing medical services; in extreme cases, diabetic customers can become traumatized (Cohen & Avieli, 2004). One such food requirement is the need to snack, as healthy snacking allows diabetic people to maintain good health while traveling (Wen et al., 2022; Zizza et al., 2010). This example illustrates the need for service design with a purpose, and aligns with the TSR paradigm. There is a close relationship between snacking, snacking time, and diabetes prevention, as those with healthy snacking behaviors have better disease prevention capability (Imai et al., 2018). However, little is known about the snacking needs of diabetic travelers, despite food such as snacks being an important component of the food service sector (Mielmann & Brunner, 2019). To fill this knowledge gap, we draw on the TSR literature (S. Anderson, Nasr, & Rayburn, 2018; L. Anderson, Ostrom, et al., 2013; Rosenbaum, 2015; Rosenbaum et al., 2011) and Thaler and Sunstein’s (2008) nudges in “health, wealth and happiness,” to formulate the following research questions: What are the main challenges and perceptions of snacking choices by diabetic customers in food service settings? How can snacking provision in food service settings be improved based on service (re)design?
We draw on the TSR approach (L. Anderson, Ostrom, et al., 2013; Rosenbaum et al., 2011) and nudge theory (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008) to answer these questions, with the overall contribution being the improvement of the wellbeing of diabetic customers through better service (re)design and provision in food service settings. Specifically, we contribute to the literature by identifying nudges that can drive changes in food service, offering to make experiences more inclusive for diabetic customers. Our findings can also be used to limit the need for unwanted food and improve unmet food needs for diabetic customers by using them to design inclusive and personalized food products. In this way, the hospitality snacking experience can be used as a nudge to drive general customer awareness around diabetes and encourage customers to opt for healthier food choices, both when traveling and at home. In essence, services can be (re)designed for better wellbeing outcomes for diabetic customers, so that services are more accessible and inclusive, bringing positive consequences for the built food environment, such as the use of food pathways interventions for diabetic customers. Considering snacking as a food experiential event (Wang et al., 2019), designing food offerings in the built food environment can nudge customers toward healthier choices, improving their satisfaction and wellbeing (Hollands et al., 2013; Lamichhane et al., 2012; Miraldo et al., 2022; Zaleskiewicz et al., 2024).
Literature Review
Transformative Service Research (TSR) and Nudge Theory
Recognizing that consumers can lack a degree of control and agency within service contexts, and that they are frequently disadvantaged in relation to information accessibility and lack of expertise compared to service providers, the TSR paradigm argues that consumer wellbeing should be the overarching focus of service provision (L. Anderson, Ostrom, et al., 2013). Wellbeing can be improved by focusing on access, literacy, and enabling better decision-making for consumers to create transformative value for themselves (Blocker & Barrios, 2015). The TSR approach also suggests how to improve relationships between various stakeholders in service ecosystems as well as the contexts and service environments that promote physical health, and emotional and mental wellbeing (Rosenbaum et al., 2011). From this perspective, hospitality and food service actors and their role in creating wellbeing for diabetic customers is an important area of study for TSR, given the implications of access to information about snacking options, and the opportunities for nudging consumers to better food choices in food service settings. However, the precise routes by which wellbeing can be co-created between actors in the service system—including food service settings—remain unclear (Chen et al., 2021), with service (re)design being one option that could create transformative value (S. Anderson, Nasr, & Rayburn, 2018). Another option, according to Thaler and Sunstein’s (2008) nudge theory, is to make subtle changes in the environment or presentation of choices that can influence people’s decisions and behaviors. Nudging is one of the most discussed intervention mechanisms in public policy and consumer research (Benartzi et al., 2017). By changing the choice architecture, which is the way in which a choice is presented and the provision of social reference points or the structuring of alternatives in a choice set, consumer behavior can be modified (Dolan et al., 2012).
The health issues of customers have been considered in the TSR literature, including medical adherence by the chronically ill (Spanjol et al., 2015), stigmatized patients and their quality of life (Yao et al., 2015), service design and healthcare (S. Anderson, Nasr, Rayburn, 2018), and transformative practices and wellbeing outcomes (Ungaro et al., 2024). Interestingly, existing studies fail to consider the marginalized group of diabetic customers. An understanding of their needs and potential wellbeing outcomes could help service designers create interventions or programs that can lead to behavioral change (S. Anderson, Nasr, & Rayburn, 2018; Datta & Mullainathan, 2014) that better address their food requirements when traveling. Effective design for positive behavior forms a critical component in addressing major societal challenges (Michie et al., 2014), including health issues (Kelders et al., 2012), with food service settings providing an opportunity to mitigate rather than exacerbate the health issues of marginalized groups such as diabetic customers.
TSR, Snacking, and Nudging
A burgeoning body of hospitality literature considers TSR as a theoretical lens (Galeone & Sebastiani, 2021; B. Kim & Yang, 2023; Mody, 2023; Rosenbaum et al., 2023) for examining wellbeing outcomes. For instance, Mody (2023) argues that hospitality provides tangible pathways for service organizations to create transformative value as part of human flourishing. Rosenbaum et al. (2023) highlight the importance of the physical and social servicescape in healthcare delivery. However, TSR studies in the hospitality literature, although examining health issues and disabilities (e.g., Pegg et al., 2021), omit to consider the needs and wellbeing of diabetic customers. Applying TSR in the context of food services, and food service providers, including those in the hospitality industry, can help (re)design food environments that support diabetic people and allow customers to make more healthy food choices. In this way, customers can be nudged toward a healthier lifestyle that can prevent a non-communicable disease such as diabetes (Hollands et al., 2013). From a TSR perspective, understanding snacking in the food service industry allows us to identify and understand barriers in existing food provision that prevent diabetic consumers from accessing healthy snacks, and the literacy levels that may be required for them to make appropriate food choices in hospitality settings. The current choice architecture can therefore be uncovered, and appropriate nudges implemented to change behavior.
The application of behavioral design in responding to non-communicable diseases—such as diabetes (e.g., Soler et al., 2018)—is common. Likewise, behavioral design, including nudging topologies, exist for the food industry and commercial food operators (Hollands et al., 2013). Behavioral design has also been applied in restaurants for nudging consumers toward specific business goals (Lu & Cai, 2023; Schifferstein, 2020). In food service studies, this theory has focused on social issues, such as coping with health epidemics and obesity (Guthrie et al., 2015), but snacking has not been considered. Snacking behaviors can also be subject to behavioral designs (i.e., nudging; Mielmann & Brunner, 2019). Nudging can be applied to labeling, presentation, sizing, and availability (Goldstein et al., 2008; Hollands et al., 2013) to address shortcomings in food service, including hospitality provision.
Diabetic Customers and Snacking
Diabetes is a serious, impaired glucose tolerance disease that has a significant negative impact on people's lives, families, and society in general (Saeedi et al., 2019). It was one of the top 10 causes of mortality in adults worldwide in 2021 and resulted in 4 million fatalities (Sun et al., 2022). There are three primary forms of diabetes: Type 1 diabetes (T1D), Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). This growing trend in T2D, which comprises around 90% of the total, can be linked to aging, accelerating urbanization, and obesogenic settings in industrialized nations (Sun et al., 2022). A substantial collective effort has been made to promote equality, inclusivity, and justice for people with diabetes, especially those with diabetic mellitus Type II, through the legalization of equal healthcare accessibility, treatments, and health promotion (Ciccone et al., 2010; Holt et al., 2021). Food service providers have also actively responded to societal challenges around obesity and diabetes by implementing inclusive food initiatives (Giesen et al., 2011; Moran et al., 2019); however, gaps still exist between diabetic people’s needs and food service provision.
Snacking has been suggested as a way for diabetic people to manage their diets (American Diabetes Association, 2004; Hess et al., 2016; Kalergis et al., 2003). While studies on healthy snacks and their nutritional expectations from customers’ perspectives are abundant (Beelen et al., 2018; Bucher et al., 2016; Hartwell & Edwards, 2009), these do not necessarily examine the views of diabetic people and/or the food service context. A healthy diet is vital for not only sustaining normal functioning for diabetic people but also for their mobility as tourists. In this context, healthy snacking implies food that can be gluten-free, rich in health-promoting macro-components, low in carbohydrates, low in unsaturated fats and calories, and linked to the “clean” label of authentic, healthy, natural, traceable, and wholesome foods (Beelen et al., 2018; Hartwell & Edwards, 2009).
Diabetes and Disability in the Food Service Industry
As noted, the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) views diabetes as an invisible disability, which poses challenges for consumers through food insecurity in the food environment (Gucciardi et al., 2014; Helmick et al., 2018). Food insecurity does not mean that there is a lack of food or healthy options for people, but rather that there is a lack of food options that satisfy nutritional needs and promote wellbeing (Burchi & De Muro, 2016). Physical environments in food service businesses can create barriers or act as enablers for the consumption of a healthy diet (Story et al., 2008). In this way, the food service sector has a key role and responsibility in public health and nutrition, creating an environment where healthy options are available and nudged to benefit consumers (Newson et al., 2015). Studies on the travel and hospitality experiences of customers suffering from diabetes, examine bringing personal snacks on flights (Ghosh et al., 2018) and the experiences of self-serving food operators (e.g., Adu et al., 2019). However, snacking needs and the availability of healthy snacks in the food service sector have not been examined.
By considering the availability of healthy snacks in food services as part of inclusive service, this study widens the hospitality and tourism literature that examines issues of accessibility, inclusivity, and equity (Doan et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2019). Service providers are encouraged to design inclusive services for diverse customer segments as part of a transformative service approach (L. Anderson & Ostrom, 2015; Fisk et al., 2018). For example, Zhang et al. (2019) examine how hospitality experiences can empower mobility-impaired customers. When studying the experiences of people with physical and sensory disabilities, Stasell and Bathje (2021) found several areas that were problematic, including customer service, built environment challenges, use of technology and safety, and emergency preparedness. However, food was not a factor affecting these customers. Other research indicates that people with disabilities continue to face both physical and attitudinal barriers when staying in hotels (Boxall et al., 2018; Darcy, 2002). Even when hotel experiences are accessible to customers with disabilities, stigma and aversion from staff and other guests can affect satisfaction and wellbeing (Darcy & Pegg, 2011). In such studies, the role of food does not emerge as problematic in customer experiences, because the focus is on customers’ physical or visual disabilities. Despite snack consumption being an important attribute in food service experiences (Yang, 2012), diabetic guests’ experiences have been largely ignored. Food service providers have a responsibility to design an inclusive environment to promote healthy food consumption that creates a sense of equity among customers (Ambikapathi et al., 2022; Gaupp et al., 2021; Hirvonen et al., 2020).
Methodology
Research Design and Interview Script
Given the research topic’s nascence, a qualitative approach using two techniques of face-to-face interviews and observation were used to collect data. Qualitative research offers rich insights with a smaller sample (Charmaz, 2020) and the flexibility to reach participants who are difficult to access. Using multiple qualitative techniques improves the subjective understanding and breadth of participant responses (Creswell & Clark, 2011). Researchers such as Schutz (1967) and Seidman (2013) suggest that interviewing is a fitting strategy when the purpose of research is to understand the subjective perspective of participants on what they encountered in life. Qualitative methods are also better for gaining a deeper and richer understanding of customers with diabetes (Hennink et al., 2017). Considering the methodological challenges of targeting diabetic customers as participants (Dwertmann, 2016), in-depth interviews were deemed a better solution than quantitative methods. To strengthen the theoretical-methodological link, the study adopted an interpretive analysis approach, emphasizing the understanding of lived experiences from participants' perspectives (Smith & Osborn, 2015). This approach aligns with using in-depth interviews to explore diabetic customers’ encounters with the food industry, focusing on meaning-making and personal experiences.
For interviewing people with disabilities in hospitality research, Doan et al. (2021) pointed out the value of an emancipatory approach by promoting the voices and feedback of people with diabetes for making constructive improvements. First, questions were asked around the availability of and barriers to accessing healthy snacks in the food industry (see the Appendix). Second, questions were asked about what an inclusive snack initiative would look like, taking into consideration labeling (nutrient information), presentation (food sensory), and sizing (food portion) needs. Third, customers’ feedback was also sought around nudging that would contribute to behavioral change, with the goal of proposing any necessary changes and modifications to snack offers that would suit the dietary requirements of diabetic customers and create a more inclusive experience for them.
Sampling and Data Collection
The study employed snowball sampling (Braun & Clarke, 2021) to recruit diabetic customers in Brisbane, Australia, in 2021, with a focus on their travel-related experiences as well as their snacking experiences in food service settings such as cafes and restaurants. One member of the research team recruited a diabetic friend as the initial participant, who then referred other individuals from their network. The sampling process continued until data saturation was reached, with no new insights emerging (Charmaz, 2020). The study specifically explored the challenges faced by diabetic individuals trying to maintain healthy snacking habits while traveling, particularly when away from their regular routines and food environments. This included their experiences in food service outlets as well as hospitality settings during their travels. In particular, participants shared experiences related to difficulties in accessing suitable snack options in food service settings commonly encountered during travel. These insights were supported by semi-structured interviews designed to capture both the disruption to routine and the availability of diabetic-friendly snacks while on the move. All participants received information sheets outlining the study’s purpose, voluntary participation, confidentiality, and withdrawal rights, ensuring ethical compliance (Hennink et al., 2017). Ethical approval for the study was granted by the University of Queensland postgraduate student research committee.
All interviews were conducted face-to-face at a time and location convenient to participants. Each interview lasted about 45 minutes, and was recorded. In an empirical study such as this, and when using in-depth interviews, saturation is typically reached with a sample size of 9–17 participants (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). Data saturation was monitored through reflective team discussions after every five interviews, assessing emerging themes and consistency. Saturation was confirmed when no new themes emerged after 20 interviews, prompting two additional interviews to validate saturation (Saunders et al., 2018). Table 1 summarizes the participant profiles. There were 12 males and 10 females, with ages ranging from 23 to 70. Pseudonyms are used to identify participants, to protect their confidentiality.
Participant Profiles.
Data Analysis
Following a grounded theory approach, data were analyzed using QSR International’s NVivo (Version 12.0) software. The transcripts were coded line by line, following an open coding process (Creswell & Clark, 2011). Open coding helps to subtract key information and common themes from interview transcripts (Braun & Clarke, 2021). Building on common themes generated from opening codes, axial coding was performed to resemble the fractured data by first linking similar categories and then evaluating the visible relationships among them (see Table 2). Thematic analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2021) six-phase framework of familiarization, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the report. Constant comparison methods were engaged to ensure the credibility and rigor of the findings (Charmaz, 2020). Triangulation was achieved through team discussions and member checking, in which participants reviewed summaries of findings to ensure accurate representation of their views (Braun & Clarke, 2021). After thematic analysis, participants’ quotes to represent the overall material and narratives were selected considering the source, types, and placement of quotes to ensure their credibility and trustworthiness (Rockmann & Vough, 2024). The selected quotes were directly relevant to the specific theme and findings discussed, capturing the essence of participants’ voices and experiences within each theme, and accurately reflecting the participant’s original words and intended meaning (Eldh et al., 2020).
Samples of Thematic Analysis
Findings
Barriers to Snack Provision in Food Service Provision
Using the TSR lens, which emphasizes service systems' role in improving consumer wellbeing, and Nudge Theory, which focuses on designing environments to guide behavior without restricting choice, we identified several barriers affecting diabetic customers' experiences in food service settings. These barriers, which reflect limited inclusivity and suboptimal choice architecture, highlight a pressing need for transformative service redesign to support healthier and more equitable food choices (See Figure 1).
Summary of the Study’s Findings.
Based on the information shared by the interview participants, several barriers to snack provisions for diabetic people were identified, highlighting issues of customer access. Snack provision in restaurants was found to inadequately serve diabetic customers, primarily due to a lack of diabetic-friendly options. Anna (aged 63, Type 2 diabetes) explained: “If I want some desserts or snacks, my only option is to choose from their available dessert menu. But as you know, all of those are meant for people with typical health conditions.” This highlights the limited choice architecture provided by food service environments, and their failure to nudge diabetic customers toward healthier options.
Similarly, the default inclusion of high-carb snacks with meals, such as potato chips, demonstrates a misaligned menu design. Snacks such as potato chips were commonly served alongside the main dish, but due to their high carbohydrate content, diabetic customers were unable to select this menu option, highlighting an ill-fitted menu design for diabetics. Peter had lunch at a Gatton restaurant, and disclosed that he gave up a portion of potato chips served alongside a beef main, as illustrated in his quote: “I can’t eat them—too many carbs. They’ll spike my blood sugar. That’s a side dish served with the beef, and it’s fixed on the menu” (Peter, aged early 70s, Type 2 diabetes).
Another participant, Helen (aged 65, Type 2 diabetes) explained: “I still accepted the potato chips, even though I knew I shouldn’t eat them—they’re too high in carbs.” Thus, Helen engaged in a guilty pleasure despite knowing that this could have negative health consequences, showing that availability encourages poor choice. These quotes from Peter and Helen, as examples, reveal how current food service design inadvertently encourages poor dietary choices, failing to leverage nudging strategies that can help customers to make better decisions.
Compared with restaurants, most healthy food options in bakeries and coffee shops were made to cater for different snacking styles, such as those of vegans and vegetarians, rather than for customers with health issues, such as obesity and diabetes. Typical answers from respondents included: “Choosing vegan options can help, but not always—sometimes they’re high in carbs” (Joe, aged 23, Type 1 diabetes), or “vegan foods are fine, but I am not a vegan” (John, age 50, Type 1 diabetes). This suggests that hospitality service design is problematic, as some customer groups are better served than others, leaving groups such as diabetic customers marginalized.
The availability of lifestyle food choices (e.g., vegan and vegetarian) was more popular than food choices for special dietary needs, creating challenges for people with diabetes when traveling. This insight was illuminated by a study of restaurants’ responses to special diet requirements (Oktadiana et al., 2020), which showed that, overall, religious and lifestyle requirements are moderately well presented, while health needs are addressed less adequately. This particular study called for an active response from restaurants to diversify their food options beyond customer lifestyle choices.
Exposure to a food service environment highlighted the availability of many unhealthy food options, often forcing diabetic customers into making unhealthy choices, despite being conscious of their health condition and the need to actively avoid unhealthy snacks. Consequently, people with diabetes experienced a conflict between enjoyment and feeling guilty, dampening their emotional and physical wellbeing. For instance, Florence encountered a dilemma caused by her sweet cravings and the abundance of sweet treats available at a hotel: “I know this ice cream isn’t good for my current diabetes, but you know what? It’s my favorite treat. I eat it—then end up wishing I hadn’t” (Florence, aged 27, Type 2 diabetes). Edward reported how he pulled up at a McDonald’s automated food ordering machine and glanced over the ice cream advertisement with a sad face. He said: Let’s try that ice cream—it looks indulgent, huh? It’s my favorite. But now, I’ve almost stopped eating sweet foods altogether. I have to train my mind to get used to this new habit, because I don’t want to die young. (Edward, aged 62, Type 2 diabetes)
The unavailability of diabetic-friendly snacks created a barrier for diabetic customers to experiencing the full gastronomic experience offered in a hospitality environment. This insight is also evident in studies on behavior changes based on food environment designs that suggest changing the food environment, such as providing a variety of healthier choices to nudge customers to choose healthier options (Hess et al., 2016).
Although disclosing nutrient information of food items for diabetic customers is critically important, not all restaurants offer this, suggesting that creating negative customer value may be common. Besides, diabetic customers are often not able to calculate the nutrient content of dishes in restaurants (e.g., main meals and snacks), confirming that there is limited information availability, despite such customers being literate about their health issues in relation to diabetes. Adam (aged 70, Type 1 diabetes) explained that he downloaded and installed a Nutrition Facts Calculation Application on his iPhone to measure the nutrition of fruit and vegetables for each homemade snack and meal. However, it was impossible to use this successfully when eating out without nutrient information disclosure from restaurants. As he explained, “I don’t know how many calories—especially carbs and salt—I’m consuming from restaurant dishes.”
The original and main function of a good restaurant menu is to provide choices and relevant information for consumers’ decision-making (Baiomy et al., 2019; IP & Chark, 2023). Studies by Wei and Miao (2013) and Mills and Thomas (2008) show that customers’ strong desire for calorie and fat information disclosure on menus and other such practical information are needed for diabetic customers to have control over their diet. Unavailability of such information reduces the experiential value of dining out and prevents customers from adopting healthy eating behaviors.
Diabetic Customer Perceptions on Inclusive Hospitality Through Experiencing the Brewer Spent Grain (BSG)-Based Snack Initiative
To facilitate the identification of factors that could enable better service (re)design, we applied the BSG framework (Lynch et al., 2016) to further understand the food and health choices of diabetic customers. Participants were asked about their knowledge and understanding of BSG based snacks.
Enjoyment of consuming diabetic-friendly BSG-based snacks
As TSR emphasizes that improving wellbeing through inclusive service designs, it has been suggested that hospitality providers could offer a diabetic-friendly BSG-based snack as an inclusive solution for diabetic customers. Diabetic customers’ overwhelmingly positive reactions to BSG-based snacks illustrate how thoughtful innovation can enhance their physical and emotional wellbeing. Participants’ appreciation of BSG-based snacks is evident in the following excerpts: “I’ve never seen cookies made specifically for people with diabetes in supermarkets” (Graham, aged 64, Type 2 diabetes); “I believed there is little choice of such a product in supermarkets” (Sofia, aged 49, Type 1 diabetes); “It’s worth more money than normal cookies” (Jane, aged 52, Type 2 diabetes); “Very nice to see this cookie” (Bruce, aged 62, Type 2 diabetes, and Rebecca, aged 57, Type 2 diabetes); and “Great sweet snack for diabetes” (Vince, aged 48, Type 1 diabetes, and Roderick, aged 57, Type 1 diabetes).
Respondents showed an interest in whole-food ingredients used in BSG-based snacks, indicating a natural and healthy foods sense. They associated the use of natural and wholesome ingredients with a sense of health and wellbeing, demonstrating the importance of perceived quality and transparency in nudging customers toward healthier choices. For example, Paul (aged 39, Type 1 diabetes) shared his feeling that “I’m really impressed by the whole-food ingredients in this recipe—avocado and spent grain. They’re both healthy and nutritious.” This aligns with the contemporary trend of using natural and wholesome ingredients in food manufacturing (Dean et al., 2007) and highlights that diabetic consumers tend to have very good knowledge of the types of ingredients that should be used for healthier food options.
Participants believed that the availability of BSG-based snacks would increase their willingness to recommend hospitality providers to their friends and other diabetic family members. Quotes supporting this view include: “I feel happy and will recommend it to my friends” (Lorena, aged 69, Type 1 diabetes), and “I’ll tell my diabetic friends about it” (Jack, aged 36, Type 2 diabetes). A noteworthy insight was that some participants referred to the close link between types of snacks, snacking habits, and the socialization opportunities that snacking provided. For instance, some mentioned that having snacks at coffee or teatime with friends and family was a socialization opportunity when traveling. Relevant quotes include: “I like cappuccino alongside sweet treats” (Bill, aged 65, Type 2 diabetes); “This cookie is a perfect treat with coffee or tea” (Bruce, aged 62, Type 2 diabetes); “Perfect for friend gathering” (Jane, aged 52, Type 2 diabetes), and “I find it good to eat with my morning coffee” (Angelo, aged 45, Type 1 diabetes).
These insights also revealed the normal snacking habits of diabetic people. Eating and choosing healthier food options become habitual for diabetic customers when they prioritize their health. Through habits, however, consumers can become more impulsive (Hofmann et al., 2009), making unhealthy food choices when repeatedly faced with such options. One way to encourage behavior change is to keep existing options but supplement these with healthy alternatives and information about the dangers and risks inherent in unhealthy options (Mielmann & Brunner, 2019). Through habitual snacking, diabetic customers may unconsciously choose unhealthy options. Thus, food operators can alter food menus to add healthy snack choices as a nudge to increase the consumption of healthier snacks.
Diabetic participants showed a preference for diabetic-friendly sweet treats, as these fulfilled their cravings and curbed their hunger, while limiting their calorie intake. Due to their strict diets, diabetic customers often crave sweet things. Roderick (aged 57, Type 1 diabetes) revealed that sweet snacks are a “good choice for between meals.” Other participants experienced the same feelings: “I’m often hungry after lunch, so having a few pieces of low-carb snacks really helps” (Lorena, aged mid-60s, Type 1 diabetes); and “My mouth often feels bland and I can’t taste much. A strict diet sometimes makes the symptom worse, so I turn to sweet things to boost my sense of taste.” (Bruce, aged 62, Type 2 diabetes).
Diabetic customers mentioned their satisfaction with transparent nutrient information displayed on the packaging of snacks based on BSG and were impressed with BSG-based snacks with low sugar and low sodium. Participants explained that “Low sugar is good for my diabetic condition” (Glory, aged 38, Type 1 diabetes), and “Low sugar is great” (Rebecca, aged 57, Type 2 diabetes). However, some did not pay attention to the nutrition information and focused on their general knowledge of this snack that was customized for diabetic customers. Rebecca made an important point: “Seeing the label 'diabetic-friendly' made me feel confident that it was made for someone like me.” These insights align with information transparency, suggesting that emphasizing health-promoting attributes can influence customer preferences.
Participants perceived diabetic-friendly BSG-based snacks as convenient and supportive, as were inclusive solutions that reduced difficulties in selecting healthy snack options. Florence (aged 27, Type 2 diabetes) explained that “Now I can buy this snack that fits my dietary needs without any hesitation.” Peter (aged early 70s, Type 2 diabetes) added “I can enjoy sweet treats without having to make them myself at home.” Rather than asking for tailor-made snacks, diabetic customers directly opted for BSG-based snacks when these were available. This promoted a sense of belonging and inclusivity, and as Rebecca (aged 57, Type 2 diabetes) explained, “I just dropped by the bakery and coffee shop and ordered this snack without worrying about the ingredients or nutritional information,” making her feel like any other customer.
It was clear from the findings that customers had a good level of literacy around nutrient information but did not always read labels when making choices. They also highlighted that they refrained from reading labels when these were dense and difficult to understand.
Feedback to improve diabetes-supporting and inclusive snacks
Although the availability of diabetic-friendly BSG-based snacks was perceived by participants as enhancing their food experience and quality of life, there was still room for improvement. First, participants highlighted taste and texture as critical factors influencing their satisfaction, aligning with TSR’s emphasis on customer-centric service innovation. They raised concerns about the taste and texture of existing snacks that were perceived as suboptimal compared to options available for other customers. They also indicated that taste should not be compromised at the expense of healthiness. Relevant quotes include: “Taste is the most important factor to opt for a new snack” (Vince, aged 48, Type 1 diabetes), and “I will choose taste first, then quality and price” (Florence, aged 27, Type 2 diabetes). These signify that health benefits alone are insufficient to encourage sustained behavioral change. Nudge strategies, such as improving the sensory appeal of healthier snacks, could mitigate this barrier.
One participant explained that snacks baked at home were not the same quality as those in a good restaurant and therefore, he enjoyed going out to have snacks. “Sometimes my wife makes muffins at home . . . They taste good, but they’re not nearly as delicious as the ones from a restaurant” (Peter, aged early 70s, Type 2 diabetes). Another aspect was texture, as some participants preferred sweet snacks with a crunchier outer layer and a chewy inner layer. A common suggestion in relation to texture was that it would be better to “make it crunchier” (Jack, aged 36, Type 2 diabetes) or “a bit hard texture” (John, aged 50, Type 1 diabetes) rather than soft.
These findings echo those of previous studies (Mills & Thomas, 2008; Sobal et al., 2006) that highlight the importance of other sensory factors in snack choice. In general, the sensory properties of snacks are expected to be more appealing than basic foods, with taste being described as the most critical attribute affecting consumer choice (French et al., 1999). However, it is also a general perception among consumers that healthy option snacks, such as wholegrain biscuits (Arvola et al., 2007), or snacks containing low fat/low calories (Bogue, Delahunty, & Kelleher, 1999), often fail to meet taste and pleasure expectations. Furthermore, while health related messages on new snack foods increases purchase intent among consumers, they also weaken the impact on the perceived pleasantness of the food, suggesting that nutritional information directly influences sensory expectations (Rivera & Shani, 2013). These insights suggest that if food providers seek to promote diabetic-customers’ behavior changes toward healthy food options, they should increase efforts to improve the overall offer rather than just focusing on the healthiness aspect.
Some participants valued aesthetic enhancements and snacks that supported social interactions, both of which contribute to psychological well-being. For instance, popular recommendations by diabetic customers were to “[add] sesame seeds on top (Roderick, aged 57, male), “add decorations” (Edward, aged 62, Type 2 diabetes), or “add decoration lemon iced sugar” (Anna, aged 63, Type 2 diabetes). Snack aesthetics were considered as akin to eating pleasure and indulgence by customers, helping customers feel happier during the consumption process, which can improve their psychological wellbeing. Again, incorporating fun and indulgent elements, as advocated by TSR, can enhance customer satisfaction and foster inclusive hospitality.
Participants also suggested that snacks should be served in smaller portion sizes to allow them to control their food intake and avoid overeating. Consuming one snack at a time enabled customers to feel full, thereby reducing their hunger and sweet cravings. For example, a serving size of 49 grams for a cookie was perceived as too big for Jane (aged 52, Type 2 diabetes), who wanted to “just eat one piece and no more, so pity for me.” This aligns with the nudging strategy in which the focus is on restructuring the environment to encourage healthier behaviors, such as offering pre-portioned snacks to prevent over-consumption.
Another customer suggested that nutrient content-related changes would be desirable, as she sought low carbs and high fiber snacks to promote digestion. Paying attention to fat content, and seeking snacks with highly unsaturated fat levels, was considered important by diabetic participants. They also explained that some low carb treats were high in sodium, while low sodium treats were high in carbs, thereby failing to meet their needs. As Mary explained, “I saw some biscuits and crackers in hotel mini-bars labeled as low sodium or low sugar. I would eat them if they were low in both sugar and sodium” (Mary, aged 69, Type 2 diabetes).
Participants also compared diabetic-friendly BSG snacks with familiar brands available in retail supermarkets. Some mentioned Anzac biscuits (a type of oatmeal cookie in Australia and New Zealand) as a familiar type they would purchase in supermarkets, suggesting that familiarity with a brand eased their decision-making. For instance, Sofia (aged late 40s, Type 1 diabetes) shared “I like the taste because it’s similar to Anzac cookies, but with a softer texture. Anzac cookies are my go-to snack to complement meals throughout the day.”
In addition, participants mentioned that price was an important factor affecting decision-making, although there was no consensus on what an ideal price should be. For instance, older participants perceived that diabetic-friendly snacks deserve a higher price compared to other normal snacks, while younger participants expected the price to be on par with standard offerings. Older diabetic adults’ feedback supported the findings of Crofton et al. (2013), who noted that healthy snacks were expected to carry a higher price tag, and consumers were willing to spend more on healthier alternatives, having the perception that a higher price tag meant higher quality. However, consumers tend to perceive healthier food options as being more expensive (Haws et al., 2017). This suggests that consumer acceptance of healthier food options is determined by a complex interaction of several key factors, in which brand and packaging play an important role (Bogue, Delahunty, Henry, et al., 1999). Urala and Lähteenmäki (2003) identified other factors, such as healthiness, taste, pleasure, security, convenience, price, and familiarity, as central reasons for choosing functional foods. When discussing healthy options for diabetics, Jane (aged 52, Type 2 diabetes) stated that “It’s worth more money than normal cookies.” Thus, food operators could leverage on these insights to design better snacking options for diabetic customers.
As snacks are also part of socialization, participants expected that they should be produced in packs that facilitated sharing with others. Quotes supportive of this view include “One pack of this cookies is better to share with colleagues,” and “Perfect for friend gathering.” This highlights the important role that snacks can play in supporting the lifestyle of diabetic customers. Crofton and Scannell (2020), referring to the fun element of food, suggested that this element can contribute to a sense of belonging through socialization by sharing a snack with others. Thus, when designing snacks for diabetic customers, food service operators should consider fun elements that can provide a sense of social belonging.
Participants also mentioned that although special considerations of diabetic people’s needs are essential, those with diabetes did not want to feel special and excluded. Rather, they wanted to be included and treated as anyone else. For example, Jane (aged 52, Type 2 diabetes) said “I still ordered the potato chips, even though I knew I shouldn’t eat them. It’s because I don’t want to stand out—I just want to feel like a normal person.”
Conclusion and Implications
Conclusions
Drawing on the TSR lens (L. Anderson, Ostrom, et al., 2013; Rosenbaum et al., 2011) and nudge theory (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008), the purpose of this study was to investigate snack provision for diabetic customers. The findings overwhelmingly suggest the existence of negative food experiences for those with diabetes, due to the poor availability and sufficiency of snack choices. The findings uncovered several barriers to the uptake of healthier snack choices for diabetic consumers based on service design and provision. More importantly, snacking choices in food service settings were unmatched to the lifestyle food choices that cater to the specific dietary needs of diabetic customers, and it was particularly evident that there was a mismatch between the types of snacks available in the home environment and those when traveling away from home. Menus seem to disempower the healthy lifestyles of diabetic customers by offering an abundant choice of unhealthy foods, and the unavailability of nutrient information hindered consumer decision-making. Using BSG-based snacks as an inclusive initiative for understanding the food experiences of diabetic people, the study also found that snacking needs are driven by food characteristics (natural ingredients, low sugar and low salt content, and a sweet taste in treats), the need to maintain healthy snacking habits, and convenience, all of which allow diabetic customers to experience positive enjoyment from food experiences. However, snacking choices did not fit the profile of healthy options for diabetic people, as suggested by the BSG-based snacks. Similarly to other studies (e.g., Crofton et al., 2013), taste appeared to be crucial in making decisions about snack food choices in food service settings.
The findings confirm that improvements in snack food provision are required to enhance the quality of life and wellbeing of diabetic customers of food service providers, including those providing wider hospitality experiences. In relation to TSR, the findings suggest the need to improve access to such choices, but food literacy is not always a barrier. Some participants were conscious of the nutritional content of snacks, while others did not pay attention to this, highlighting disparities in understanding the role of healthy snacking in preventing diabetes. Food service (re)design for this segment needs to include considerations for snack sensory and visual presentation, snack sizing, snack nutrient labeling, branding, pricing, and how such food experiences contribute to a sense of social belonging and social connection when traveling and experiencing food. Both awareness and literacy as nudges should be used to improve the experiences of diabetic customers in food service settings.
The findings also echoed the concerns of Doan et al. (2021) in that food service should take an emancipatory approach for people with disabilities, and arguments by Dwertmann (2016) for adding the voices of diabetics when designing more inclusive hospitality research. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study attempting to critically examine diabetic customers’ need for snacks and offer an assessment of existing provisions. We hope this critical reflection is the starting point for ongoing and in-depth discussions on the under-represented category of customers with different health issues in the hospitality and tourism industry, further suggesting the need for improvements in food provision and experience.
Theoretical Contributions
Use of the TSR lens suggests the transformative potential of service design in co-creating wellbeing for customers (S. Anderson, Nasr, & Rayburn, 2018). While prior studies have applied TSR in health care contexts (Spanjol et al., 2015; Yao et al., 2015), diabetic customers remain under-explored as a marginalized group within the food service industry. This study contributes to the TSR literature by extending its application to the snacking experience—a previously overlooked domain of service provision—and thereby widening the conceptual boundaries of TSR from core service encounters to auxiliary yet essential experiences. Furthermore, we theorize that those dietary micro-moments (e.g., snack selection) can become sites of wellbeing transformation when embedded within inclusive service (re)design. This highlights the importance of micro-level food provision as an under-recognized yet impactful layer of transformative service, particularly for health-vulnerable populations such as diabetics.
We concur with Mody (2023) that wellbeing outcomes of marginalized groups can be improved through servicescape and service processes that allow customers to flourish. Given the central importance of a healthy diet to diabetic customers, choice architecture should be framed in such a way that customers are given the agency and control over making healthy dietary choices. Diet is one of the most important interventions for diabetic customers seeking to adopt a healthy lifestyle; however, healthier food choices should be understood not only as public health interventions for diabetes, which are widely studied, but also as opportunities to enhance food experiences (Bédard et al., 2020) and promote overall wellbeing (Guthrie et al., 2015). By applying nudging strategies in creating more convenient food choices for customers with limited knowledge and time to read nutrient information (Guthrie et al., 2015), food service providers such as cafes, restaurants, hotels, and airports, can play a central role in ensuring that diabetic customers can make the right snack choices. For instance, Jansson-Boyd and Kobescak (2020) also suggested that food designers can use nudging to take advantage of non-healthy-looking food to drive consumer’s behaviors to make healthier purchasing decisions. Thus, focusing on diabetic customers contributes to the existing literature on consumers with disabilities who are different and require specific assistance (Kalargyrou et al., 2018), and differs from previous hospitality studies considering disability (Boxall et al., 2018; Tlili et al., 2021).
Specifically, the findings demonstrate that nudging can be embedded into the service (re)design of food service settings to shape diabetic customers’ food behaviors in real time. While previous studies have explored nudging in public health or retail contexts (e.g., S. Anderson, Nasr, & Rayburn, 2018), our study extends nudging theory into the food service space by theorizing context-responsive nudging. In both cases, nudging can contribute to improved physical and mental wellbeing (S. Anderson, Nasr, & Rayburn, 2018). Nudges have shown promising results in changing people’s behavior, improving the self-management of chronic diseases, such as Type 2 diabetes (Kwan et al., 2020), and modifying patients’ lifestyle choices, such as diet (Rouyard et al., 2018). In this way, social marketing through awareness and the provision of healthy snacks can be part of a broader societal agenda for better health care for diabetics. In this study, taking diabetic customers as research objects for behavioral design, and identifying their needs for snack provision, would allow food designers to create inclusive snack offerings that can improve the food experiences of diabetic customers. In this way, existing barriers to healthy food uptake can be addressed, and healthier consumption practices to prevent diabetes can be promoted. This resonates with Goldstein and colleagues’ (2008) call for a better application of nudging to promote healthy snacking by taking customers’ information about their needs and preferences into account.
This study also illuminates the potential of nudging to achieve social change. By focusing on snacks specifically designed for individuals with diabetes, the study provides facets of the food service provision that can be used for nudging purposes. From nutrient labeling to sensory aspects, food experience design can have a positive impact on the dietary choices and behaviors of individuals living with diabetes. Particularly, people's food choice decisions are rarely based on deliberate processing of the pros and cons of all the alternatives available to them; rather, decisions are frequently made on the spot in a heuristic fashion, influenced by cues that exist in the immediate choice environment (Yi et al., 2022). Our findings can therefore shed light on the efficacy of such interventions and contribute to the understanding of health-related social change processes. This is aligned with a study by Guthrie et al. (2015) who suggested that service design, when paired with the marketing insights of customer preferences, can have important impacts on the healthier behaviors of marginalized segments. Determining people’s behaviors informing their choices of snacks would also help to develop better public health strategies and health-promotion activities (Cannuscio et al., 2014). For an integrated, policy-focused understanding of food choices, researchers need to optimize information in areas such as early life experiences, environmental factors, impulsive choice behavior, emotions and decision making, and how choices are changed with, for example, age (Kwan et al., 2020).
Practical Contributions
This study examined diabetic people’s experiences on snack provision in food service settings, and the findings have important practical implications. Although snack provision in such settings is prevalent, including snacks in hotel minibars (Finkelstein & Lynch, 2001; J. J. Kim & Han, 2022; Masiero et al., 2015), most of the existing snacks respond to broader customer needs and the trend for healthier food (Crofton & Scannell, 2020; Crofton et al., 2013). However, for those with diabetes to adopt and consume healthier snack options for disease prevention and intervention, food service operators should provide snacks or complimentary foods that take into consideration the specific health needs of diabetic customers, such as calories, sugar, and cholesterol content. The provision of nutritional labeling on snacks through a specific application designed for the food service business can improve guest experiences in a quest for a more inclusive and supportive approach for diabetic customers, as its functions can help nudge customers to stay on track with their dietary needs (Wang et al., 2019). Designing better snack food experiences can involve understanding the unique requirements of individuals with diabetes, implementing inclusive design principles to nudge customers towards better choices for their health through creating personalized defaults (snacks; Goldstein et al., 2008), and adopting value co-creation approaches (Carvalho & Alves, 2023; E. Kim et al., 2019) to create diabetic-friendly snacks and other food types.
While snacks are important in many food service settings, they are equally important as part of the food and beverage component of hospitality services when traveling, implying that in hospitality settings they can be used to differentiate guest experiences (Mun et al., 2022). The provision of snacks that adhere to the dietary requirements of diabetics can be used to position food service businesses, such as hotels and restaurants, as inclusive, and for advertising and communication campaigns that create a distinct identity for catering for diabetic customers. The findings also highlight that the snacking experiences of such customers have similarities in the needs and preferences of other customer groups, as suggested by Crofton et al. (2013), implying that targeting such groups may not necessarily be more costly for food service businesses. Diabetic customers associate snacking with a sense of social belonging and socialization, which should be a useful implication for food service operators seeking to design a snack package and food experiences that meet feelings of wellness and wellbeing. This also suggests that minibar item selections can be improved to enhance customer wellbeing (J. J. Kim & Han, 2022), by differentiating the variety and quality of snack foods available to guests (Yang, 2012), or providing a common area with drinks and snacks that meet dietary requirements for guests to enjoy with their significant others (Lee et al., 2019).
This study also provides food operators with guidance on customer feedback evaluation and relationship management in the context of health-conscious consumers. By examining the preferences, behaviors, and satisfaction levels of those with diabetes regarding snacks, the study can offer suggestions on effective customer relationship management (CRM) strategies, involving understanding customer needs, tailoring communication, such as using implicit (vs. explicit) communication of healthy food choices on menus to nudge customers’ behaviors (Lu & Cai, 2023) and marketing efforts, and building long-term relationships based on trust and mutual understanding. For instance, food service providers can play the dual roles of caregiving and experience catering to customers, promoting customers’ satisfaction and loyalty (Wang et al., 2019). Previous studies have emphasized the importance of understanding customers’ perceptions and expectations of offerings (Kandampully, 2006), which would allow food service managers to create value and innovate differentiated offerings (Osman et al., 2009; Yang, 2012). Managers can benefit from these insights to exceed the expectations of diabetic customers.
Limitations and Future Research
The current research focused on diabetic customers, and helped to fill a knowledge gap in terms of service provision for such customers and serve as an important reference for tourism and food service stakeholders seeking to design more inclusive experiences. However, the study has some limitations. First, it focused on guests with a specific disease, and therefore the findings may not be applicable to those with other ailments. Different health issues require different dietary requirements, so we encourage future research to include people with other diseases, and explore their perceptions of and experiences with food services, as well as how food innovation can address their needs.
Second, the study was based on qualitative research, which offered in-depth insights into the lived experiences of diabetic customers. While the findings may not be statistically generalized, they do provide valuable context-specific understandings. Building on this foundation, future research could adopt longitudinal qualitative methods, such as participant observation and ethnography, to explore food-related challenges faced by people with diabetes across various stages of the travel experience. Additionally, research could investigate experiences in different transport modes, such as flights, cruise ships, and trains, and within diverse travel contexts. The present study emphasized the food service context, which is likely limited to generalizations about other food service contexts such as cafes, bars, and lounges. This leaves ample space for future research to explore and understand the growing market segment of diabetic people's needs in other service contexts, thereby providing a more inclusive understanding of their experiences. Third, the research is contextually bounded by focusing on one city in Australia, representing a specific cross-section of people with diabetes. Future research could expand to include multiple geographic locations and explore how managing multiple health issues impacts travel and food experiences, offering a more comprehensive understanding of diverse customer needs.
Finally, future research should build on a diverse range of participant perspectives by examining how food service providers can tailor food innovation and healthy food trends to improve the quality of life and wellbeing of guests with specific health conditions. For instance, some participants highlighted needs related to allergies, chronic illnesses, or dietary restrictions, while others focused on lifestyle choices such as plant-based food. By identifying patterns and divergences in dietary expectations across customer groups—such as vegans, vegetarians, or individuals managing diabetes or cardiovascular issues—researchers can generate targeted insights for food designers and engineers. This could lead to the development of innovative food products (e.g., functional snacks or customizable meal options) that are both health-conscious and commercially viable. Such a focus would allow hospitality and travel industry managers to adopt evidence-informed strategies that align with emerging consumer needs. In so doing, future studies could more concretely bridge the gap between individual dietary preferences and operational decisions in hospitality settings.
Footnotes
Appendix: Questions for Interviewing Diabetic Participants
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
