Abstract
So you think you know the history of toxicology because you know about Paracelsus? Not hardly. You have only just begun to scratch the surface of how toxicology has evolved and how critical poisons were to ancient civilizations. Phil Wexler’s latest book entitled “History of Toxicology and Environmental Health (Volumes I and II)” is riveting. The book focuses on toxicology/poisons/venoms/religion and the surrounding mystery found in antiquity to the fall of the Roman Empire. The information deals primarily with ancient Egypt, Greece, India, Rome, Mesopotamia, Mesoamerica, and China.
Volume I is divided into 12 chapters. Chapter 1—entitled “Toxicology in Ancient Egypt”—sets the stage by explaining that snakes, scorpions, plant, and mineral toxins fit into the Maat or “order of things in the world.” This is known through numerous ancient writings but primarily the Brooklyn (525-600 BCE), Berlin (1200 BCE), Ebers (1656 BCE), and Edwin Smith (1650-1550 BCE) Papyri, which are among the oldest medical documents known to man.
Did you know that Cleopatra (Yes, the one from Egypt with Mark Anthony) was a chemist and pharmacologist and made her own cosmetics and even wrote a treatise called “Cosmetics” which “discussed remedies, potions and ointments?” She was born in 69 BCE and died at the age of 40. While she was a “whisperer of powerful men,” she was also the Pharaoh of Egypt, a very strong and very well-educated woman. Indeed, her treatise on cosmetics was so influential that it was referenced in later works by Galen in the third century, Aëtius of Amida (fourth century), Paul of Aegina (seventh century), and John Tzetes as late as 1200. It is a testament to her brilliance that Cleopatra’s treatise was still being examined and referenced a thousand years after her death. I never got the impression that Cleopatra was a pharmacologist from Liz Taylor’s portrayal in the 1963 movie, although the movie did underscore the drama surrounding her life and death! Which leads to another observation: Hollywood and some historians would have you believe (and so would Octavian) that she committed suicide with an asp. Her 2 handmaidens died with her where she was kept prisoner. There is quite an interesting discussion about this in Chapter 2 which indicates that to have worked so efficiently and killed all three women, the guards would have had to bring in several large cobras each weighing probably 10 pounds which were never identified by anyone. With Cleopatra’s experimentation and considerable knowledge of poisons, she no doubt had ways of avoiding these demises and it is most probable that she was murdered by Octavian who didn’t need the political backlash of killing a popular queen. It is believed that she was injected with a mixture of hemlock, opium, and aconite in a way to appear it was from a snake bite; however, the effects were almost immediate—which is very much unlike the timing of death with snake venom. Hence, the weight of the evidence is that she was murdered thereby giving Octavian a clear path to being the Pharaoh. The Roman Republic became the Roman Empire under Octavian who was its first Emperor. While it worked out well for Octavian, Cleopatra’s mystique and intellect have endured for centuries.
Chapter 3 discussed Mithridates who became a relentless enemy of the Roman Empire causing the Mithridates Wars about 100 BCE. His father was poisoned before him and he feared his mother would poison him. He survived and assumed the throne; however, his fear of being poisoned made him perhaps the first experimental toxicologist by seeking a universal anecdote to immunize himself from poisons from his family and foes. Mithridates experimented on himself and others (mostly condemned criminals) by systematically taking sublethal doses of various poisons which resulted in making the individual immune to the poison—a process which became known as “Mithridatism.” Mithridates’ legacy was the “Mithridatium” formula which he derived from his experimentation. The mystery of the Mithridatium formula may be lost to antiquity, but the search for a “universal anecdote” continues even today as scientists such as Sergei Popov search for “broad-spectrum biodefenses” (Project Bonfire) against weapons-grade pathogens here in the United States.
Chapter 4 continues noting that poisoning was the traditional weapon of this era. Many such anecdotes or “Theriacs” existed which were derivatives of Mythridatium. Theriac is derived from the Greek word therion for wild beast. Galen developed an apparently effective Theriac which Emperor Markus Aurelius took daily that included “viper’s flesh, opium, honey, and more than 70 other ingredients.” Galen’s experimentations with Theriac on roosters are believed to be among the first known randomized control trials. Interestingly, the Theriac formula was used up until the 19th century—some 2000 years after it was first developed. There is some question as to whether or not it was truly a universal anecdote or simply an addicting tranquilizer because of the opium.
Chapter 5 describes how the ancients examined venomous animals and poisons. Two poems by Nicander of Colophon (ca 200 BCE) add intrigued and knowledge to the ancient’s knowledge of these areas. The first poem is entitled Thêriaka and it identifies venomous animals (the Greek term thêr refers to wild animals) including their occurrence, life cycles and remedies to their venoms. The second poem is entitled Alexpharmaka which is from the Greek words alex meaning healing and pharmakon meaning either a medicine or a poisonous substance. It is believed that the two words together may signify both the treatment of exposure to deadly poisons as well as treatments with these chemicals.
Chapter 6 deals with the death of Alexander the Great at the young age of 32. Chapter 7 reviews harmful botanicals in classical toxicology including the Hippcrates Collection 375-350 BCE and De material medica (100 CE), while Chapter 8 examines the case against Socrates and his execution in 399 BCE. Chapter 9 is entitled “The Oracle at Delphi: The Pythia and the Pneuma, Intoxicating Gas Finds and Hypotheses” and examines the mystery of a cave which intoxicates individuals into uttering oracles in both verse and prose. Chapter 10 entitled “The Ancient Gates to Hell and Their Relevance to Geogenic CO2” discusses the much feared netherworld of Hades which was thought to exist underground. Caves were thought to be the gates of Hell and if any gases were emitted that killed any herdsman’s flock, the fear of supernatural forces was greater than usable. The location of many of the known revered ancient sites as well as the chemistry of the effects are reviewed in some detail in this chapter. Chapter 11 is entitled “Lead Poisoning and the Downfall of Rome: Reality or Myth?” The use of lead in ancient cultures was extensive. Even the word plumbing is derived from the Latin plumbum meaning lead. Many of the Romans’ earthenware, water conduits, and reservoir were made of lead, hence, the theory is discussed in detail. Chapter 12 lists of known important individuals who were poisoners and the incidents of poisonings—appropriately entitled “Poisons, Poisoning and Poisoners in Ancient Rome.”
The first chapter in Volume II notes that while the ancient world had its philosophers, artists, and great leaders, they were also awash with their share of murderers as evidenced by the chapter title: “Murder, Execution, and Suicide in Ancient Greece and Rome.” While many of these murders were committed by stabbing (Caesar, 44 BCE), many others were poisoned. In fact, as early as 449 BCE, the Law of the Twelve Tables (Lex duodecim tabellarum) was passed prohibiting poisons and again in 81 BCE Cornelia Law on Assassins and Poisoners (Lex Cornelia de sicarilis et veneficis). While these may not have been very effective, they point out the fact that this was a very common activity in Rome. The literature on poisons and remedies appears about 200 BCE with the Nicander of Colophon.
Chapter 2 covers biological weaponry that were found in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, China, and the Americas. Arrows were found to be highly effective delivery systems for toxins including snake venoms, Hellebore, Wolfsbane, hemlock, and Belladonna. Ancient warfare also included the use of bubonic plague, poisoning water and food sources, aerosol, and incendiary weapons.
Chapter 3 discusses environmental pollution in the form of air, water, and ground. Lead and copper exposure was rampant and has been found in exhumed mummies. Chapter 4 describes the legal framework around the poisoning cases brought to trial under the previously mentioned Roman laws. Chapter 5 describes the history of the use of the snake as toxicological and medical symbols in ancient Greece and Rome. Chapter 6 deals with the mysticism of magic, cult worship, and aphrodisiacs in ancient cultures, while Chapter 7 describes the development of lead based mixtures (kohl) for various eye conditions.
Chapter 8 covers the use of cosmetics in antiquity, which was a dangerous activity especially with chronic use. As is the current practice, the women of antiquity strove to make their faces lighter and smooth, their eyes large, their body skin smooth, their hair an attractive color, and their bodies free from hair. The ancients were somewhat aware of the toxicity of these cosmetics, since they were referred to as medicamentum (which in Latin can be cosmetics or medicines or poisons or even magical potions). The potentially toxic cosmetics contained many chemicals including lead, antimony, mercury, and arsenic.
Chapter 9 is devoted to poisonous medicines in China which is the study of “du.” Du has several definitions in Chinese pharmacology which are thoroughly investigated in this chapter. In China, the development of the dosage and combinations with other chemicals is quite important. The chapter investigates the development and use of aconite which has both the power to cure and the power to kill. The development of these findings in aconite and about 400 other substances occurred from about 200 BCE through 200 CE; however, its use as a poison was first documented in 656 BCE.
Chapter 10 investigates the “venomous virgin”—that is, a maiden assassin who kills with her poisonous kiss. While this became quite popular in Europe during the 1200s, it can be traced back 800 years earlier to India. The idea was that the maiden would become immunized by ingesting sublethal amounts of poisons as was developed by Mithridates in the first-century BCE. Subsequent contact with a victim would supposedly kill him and leave her unscathed but toxic to anyone close to her. While the concept of femme fatale is intriguing, the chapter concludes stating that this was spawned by men, for men to use against each other with no thought of the woman. The reality of whether or not these poison damsels existed remains a mystery but makes a good story.
Chapter 11 is about the use hallucinogenic mushrooms as part of religious worship in Mesoamerica starting in 1000 BCE. The last chapters (12 and 13) deal with the use of entheogens (mind-altering substances) in ancient times and how they were integrated into religious believes in the Middle East. Wine was the substance of choice that was used in rituals of Dionysus—also known as Bacchus—who was the deity associated with drink as early as 500 BCE. The rituals covered 2 to 3 days and involved inebriation and theatrical festivals of comedy and tragedy.
The extent and influence of toxicology has had monumental effects in the development of mankind, our beliefs, and our survival—making us who we are today. Philip Wexler has collected this critical information into a single source with the help of many skilled historians and scientists that is not only educational and intriguing but also quite readable. How this all fits together throughout history and shapes current cultures and countries is entrancing. These volumes provide a different perspective of toxicology which is much richer and more important than I ever would have imagined. From this reviewer’s perspective, to truly understand our science and its impact on today’s society and science, you must read this work.
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