Objective: ADHD in adolescents and low level of parental monitoring have been associated with increased risk-taking behavior. The present study examined whether parental knowledge of the child’s whereabouts mediates the correlations between adolescent ADHD symptoms and risk-taking behavior. Method: Ninety-two adolescents and their parents completed questionnaires assessing perceptions of parents’ monitoring, engagement in risk-taking behaviors, and ADHD symptoms. Results: Greater engagement in risk-taking behavior correlated with higher levels of ADHD symptoms and decreased parental monitoring. Mediation analysis revealed both direct effect of ADHD symptoms on risk-taking behavior and an indirect effect mediated by level of parental knowledge. Conclusion: These findings suggest that parental knowledge is negatively affected by the presence of ADHD symptoms, and may in turn lead to risk-taking behavior. The findings emphasize the need to target parenting and in particular parental knowledge of the child’s whereabouts to reduce risk-taking behaviors among youth with ADHD.
AhmadiK.Khodadadi SangdehJ.AminimaneshS.MollazamaniA.KhanzadeM. (2013). The role of parental monitoring and affiliation with deviant peers in adolescents’ sexual risk taking: Toward an interactional model. International Journal of High Risk Behaviors & Addiction, 2(1), 22-27.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
3.
BarberB. K.OlsenJ. E.ShagleS. C. (1994). Associations between parental psychological and behavioral control and youth internalized and externalized behaviors. Child Development, 65, 1120-1136.
4.
BarkleyR. A. (2004). Driving impairments in teens and adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 27, 233-260.
5.
BoyerT. W. (2006). The development of risk-taking: A multi-perspective review. Developmental Review, 26, 291-345.
6.
CharachA.YeungE.ClimansT.LillieE. (2011). Childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and future substance use disorders: Comparative meta-analyses. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(1), 9-21.
7.
CoghillD.Sonuga-BarkeE. J. (2012). Annual research review: Categories versus dimensions in the classification and conceptualisation of child and adolescent mental disorders—Implications of recent empirical study. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 469-489.
8.
CrouterA. C.BumpusM. F.DavisK. D.McHaleS. M. (2005). How do parents learn about adolescents’ experiences? Implications for parental knowledge and adolescent risky behavior. Child Development, 76, 869-882.
9.
CussenA.SciberrasE.UkoumunneO. C.EfronD. (2012). Relationship between symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and family functioning: A community-based study. European Journal of Pediatrics, 171, 271-280.
10.
DeverB. V.SchulenbergJ. E.DworkinJ. B.O’MalleyP. M.KloskaD. D.BachmanJ. G. (2012). Predicting risk-taking with and without substance use: The effects of parental monitoring, school bonding, and sports participation. Prevention Science, 13, 605-615.
11.
DiClementeR. J.WingoodG. M.CrosbyR.SioneanC.CobbB. K.HarringtonK.. . . OhM. K. (2001). Parental monitoring: Association with adolescents’ risk behaviors. Pediatrics, 107, 1363-1368.
12.
EllisB.NiggJ. (2009). Parenting practices and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: New findings suggest partial specificity of effects. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 146-154.
FareghN.DerevenskyJ. (2011). Gambling behavior among adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Gambling Studies, 27, 243-256.
15.
FletcherA. C.SteinbergL.Williams-WheelerM. (2004). Parental influences on adolescent problem behavior: Revisiting Stattin and Kerr. Child Development, 75, 781-796.
16.
HaroldG. T.LeveL. D.BarrettD.ElamK.NeiderhiserJ. M.NatsuakiM. N.. . . ThaparA. (2013). Biological and rearing mother influences on child ADHD symptoms: Revisiting the developmental interface between nature and nurture. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 1038-1046.
17.
HayesA. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
18.
HuebnerA. J.HowellL. W. (2003). Examining the relationship between adolescent sexual risk-taking and perceptions of monitoring, communication, and parenting styles. Journal of Adolescent Health, 33, 71-78.
19.
JohnstonC.MashE. J. (2001). Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Review and recommendations for future research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 183-207.
20.
KeijsersL.BranjeS. J. T.VanderValkI. E.MeeusW. (2010). Reciprocal effects between parental solicitation, parental control, adolescent disclosure, and adolescent delinquency. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 88-113.
21.
KerrM.StattinH. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366-380.
22.
KerrM.StattinH.BurkW. J. (2010). A reinterpretation of parental monitoring in longitudinal perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 39-64.
23.
KollinsS. H.McClernonF. J.FuemmelerB. F. (2005). Association between smoking and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in a population-based sample of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 1142-1147.
24.
LeeS. S.HumphreysK. L.FloryK.LiuR.GlassK. (2011). Prospective association of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance use and abuse/dependence: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 328-341.
25.
LiffordK. J.HaroldG. T.ThaparA. (2008). Parent-child relationships and ADHD symptoms: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 285-296.
26.
MallinckrodtB.AbrahamW. T.WeiM.RussellD. W. (2006). Advances in testing the statistical significance of mediation effects. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 372-378.
27.
MolinaB. S.PelhamW. E.Jr. (2014). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and risk of substance use disorder: Developmental considerations, potential pathways, and opportunities for research. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, 607-639.
28.
MolinaB. S.PelhamW. E.CheongJ.MarshalM. P.GnagyE. M.CurranP. J. (2012). Childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and growth in adolescent alcohol use: The roles of functional impairments, ADHD symptom persistence, and parental knowledge. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 922-935.
29.
NiggJ. T. (2005). Neuropsychologic theory and findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The state of the field and salient challenges for the coming decade. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1424-1435.
30.
NiggJ. T. (2013). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and adverse health outcomes. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 215-228.
31.
NiggJ. T.CaseyB. J. (2005). An integrative theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder based on the cognitive and affective neurosciences. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 785-806.
32.
NikolasM. A.BurtS. A. (2010). Genetic and environmental influences on ADHD symptom dimensions of inattention and hyperactivity: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119(1), 1-17.
33.
Pat-HorenczykR.PeledO.MironT.BromD.VillaY.ChemtobC. M. (2007). Risk-taking behaviors among Israeli adolescents exposed to recurrent terrorism: Provoking danger under continuous threat?The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(1), 66-72.
34.
PelhamW. E.Jr.GnagyE. M.GreensladeK. E.MilichR. (1992). Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 210-218.
35.
PingaultJ. B.CoteS. M.GaleraC.GenoliniC.FalissardB.VitaroF.TremblayR. E. (2013). Childhood trajectories of inattention, hyperactivity and oppositional behaviors and prediction of substance abuse/dependence: A 15-year longitudinal population-based study. Molecular Psychiatry, 18, 806-812.
36.
PollakY.OzA.NeventsalO.RabiO.KitrosskyL.MaeirA. (2016). Do adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder show risk seeking? Disentangling probabilistic decision making by equalizing the favorability of alternatives. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125, 387-398.
37.
PreacherK. J.HayesA. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891.
38.
ReynoldsE. K.MacPhersonL.MatusiewiczA. K.SchreiberW. M.LejuezC. W. (2011). Discrepancy between mother and child reports of parental knowledge and the relation to risk behavior engagement. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology: The Official Journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division, 53, 40(1), 67-79.
39.
SalariR.ThorellL. B. (2015). Parental monitoring in late adolescence: Relations to ADHD symptoms and longitudinal predictors. Journal of Adolescence, 40, 24-33.
40.
SarverD. E.McCartM. R.SheidowA. J.LetourneauE. J. (2014). ADHD and risky sexual behavior in adolescents: Conduct problems and substance use as mediators of risk. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 1345-1353.
41.
ShohamR.Sonuga-BarkeE. J. S.AloniH.YanivI.PollakY. (2016). ADHD-associated risk taking is linked to exaggerated views of the benefits of positive outcomes. Scientific Reports, 6, Article 34833.
42.
StattinH.KerrM. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072-1085.
43.
WaltherC. A. P.CheongJ.MolinaB. S. G.PelhamW. E.WymbsB. T.BelendiukK. A.PedersonS. A. (2012). Substance use and delinquency among adolescents with childhood ADHD: The protective role of parenting. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26, 585-598.
44.
WilloughbyT.HamzaC. A. (2011). A longitudinal examination of the bidirectional associations among perceived parenting behaviors, adolescent disclosure and problem behavior across the high school years. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 463-478.
