Distillers dried grains (DDG) have potential to be a nutritionally important source of protein, oil and phenolic antioxidants. DDG was subjected to high-shear and jet-cooking, with or without alkaline pH adjustment and autoclaving. Soluble and insoluble fractions were analyzed for protein, oil and ash. Extracts were analyzed for phenolic acids and antioxidant activity. Protein contents were significantly elevated in the insoluble fractions after treatment and the oil content was drastically increased in the insoluble fraction after high-shear and jet-cooking without pH adjustment. Alkaline pH adjustment resulted in a soluble fraction that was highest in phenolic acids, but not antioxidant activity. The highest antioxidant activity was found in the 50% ethanol extract from DDG that had been subjected to high-shear and jet-cooking. These results suggest that high-shear and jet-cooking may be useful processing treatments to increase the value of DDG by producing fractions high in protein, oil and extractable phenolic acids with high antioxidant activity. The DDG fractions and extracts described herein may be useful as food and nutraceutical ingredients, and, if used for these applications, will increase the value of DDG and ease economic burdens on ethanol producers, allowing them to compete in the bio-fuel marketplace.
Adom K.K. and Liu R.H. ( 2002). Antioxidant activity of grains. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry50: 6182-6187.
2.
American Association of Cereal Chemists (1995 ). Crude protein- Combustion method. In: American Association of Cereal Chemists Official Methods, 9th edn. St. Paul, MN: AACC, method , pp. 46-30.
3.
American Oil Chemists’ Society (1993 ). Oil content in soybeans. In: Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists Society , 4th edn. Champaign, IL: The Society, method Ac, pp. 3-44.
4.
Baker A. and Lutman H. ( 2008). Feed Year in Review (Domestic): Record Demand Drives U.S. Feed Grain Prices Higher in 2007/ 08. Economic Research Service/United States: Department of Agriculture.
5.
Bannon C.D., Breen G.J. and Craske J.D. ( 1982). Analysis of fatty acid methyl esters with high accuracy and reliability. III. Literature review of and investigations into the development of rapid procedures for the methoxide-catalysed methanolysis of fats and oils . Journal of Chromatography247: 71-89.
6.
Baranowski J.D. ( 1980). Inhibition of Saccharomyces cerevisiae by naturally-occurring hydroxycinnamates. Journal of Food Science45: 592-594.
7.
Brand-Williams W., Cuvelier M.E. and Berset C. ( 1995). Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT - Food Science and Technology28: 25-30.
8.
Brochetti D., Penfield M.P. and Heimedelman M.F. ( 1991). Yeast bread containing distillers’ dried grain - Dough development and bread quality. Journal of Food Quality14: 331-344.
9.
Christie W.W. ( 1989). Gas Chromatography and Lipids-A Practical Guide. Ayr , Scotland: The Oily Press.
10.
Doner L.W. and Hicks K.B. ( 1997). Isolation of hemicellulose from corn fiber by alkaline hydrogen peroxide extraction. Cereal Chemistry74: 176-181.
11.
Fontaine J., Zimmer U., Moughan P.J. and Rutherfurd S.M. ( 2007). Effect of heat damage in an autoclave on the reactive lysine contents of soy products and corn distillers dried grains with solubles. Use of the results to check on lysine damage in common qualities of these ingredients. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry55: 10737-10743.
12.
Goodey A.R. ( 1982). Genetic and biochemical-analysis of the ability of Saccharomyces cerivisiae to decarboxylate cinnamic-acids. Journal of General Microbiology128: 2615-2620.
13.
Hoffman L., Baker A., Foreman L. and Young E.C. ( 2007). Feed grains backgrounder. Economic Research Service/United States Department of Agriculture . Available at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/FDS/2007/03Mar/FDS07C01/fds07C01.pdf . (accessed May 30, 2010).
14.
Inglett G.E. ( 1998). Soluble hydrocolloid food additives and method of making . United States Patent, p. 6,060,519.
15.
Inglett G.E., Xu J., Stevenson D.G. and Chen D. (2009). Rheological and pasting properties of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculemtum Moench) flours with and without jet-cooking. Cereal Chemistry86: 1-6.
16.
Kim D.N., Bae I.Y., Inglett G.E. and Lee S. ( 2009). Effects of hydrothermal treatment on the physicochemical, rheological and oil-resistant properties of rice flour. Journal of Texture Studies40: 192-207.
17.
Kim C.H., Maga J.A. and Martin J.T. ( 1989). Properties of extruded dried distiller grains (DDG) and flour blends. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation13: 219-231.
18.
Lawton J.W. ( 2006). Isolation of zein using 100 % ethanol. Cereal Chemistry83: 565-568.
19.
Liazid A., Palma M., Brigui J. and Barroso C.G. ( 2007). Investigation on phenolic compounds stability during microwave-assisted extraction. Journal of Chromatography A1140: 29-34.
20.
Loy D.D. and Wright K.N. ( 2003). Nutritional properties and feeding value of corn and its byproducts. In: White P.L. and Johnson L.A. (eds), Corn: Chemistry and Technology . St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists, pp. 571-604.
21.
Makris D.P. and Rossiter J.T. ( 2000). Heat-induced, metal-catalyzed oxidative degradation of quercetin and rutin (quercetin 3-Orhamnosylglucoside) in aqueous model systems . Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry48: 3830-3838.
22.
Mattila P., Pihlava J.M. and Hellstrom J. ( 2005). Contents of phenolic acids, alkyl- and alkenylresorcinols, and avenanthramides in commercial grain products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry53: 8290-8295.
23.
Mussatto S.I., Dragone G. and Roberto I.C. ( 2006). Brewers’ spent grain: Generation, characteristics and potential applications. Journal of Cereal Science43: 1-14.
24.
Rasco B.A., Downey S.E., Dong F.M. and Ostrander J. ( 1987). Consumer acceptability and color of deep-fried fish coated with wheat or corn distillers’ dried grains with solubles (DDGS). Journal Food Science52: 1506-1508.
25.
Saulnier L. and Thibault J.F. ( 1999). Ferulic acid and diferulic acids as components of sugar-beet pectins and maize bran heteroxylans. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture79: 396-402.
26.
Sensoy I., Rosen R.T., Ho C.T. and Karwe M.V. ( 2006). Effect of processing on buckwheat phenolics and antioxidant activity. Food Chemistry99: 388-393.
27.
Singh V., Moreau R.A., Hicks K.B., Belyea R.L. and Staff C.H. ( 2002). Removal of fiber from distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) to increase value. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers45: 389-392.
28.
Singleton V.L., Orthofer R. and Lamuela-Raventos R.M. ( 1999). Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteau reagent. Methods in Enzymology299: 152-178.
29.
Srinivasan R., Moreau R.A., Rausch K.D., Belyea R.L., Tumbleson M.E. and Singh V. ( 2005). Separation of fiber from distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) using sieving and elutriation. Cereal Chemistry82: 528-533.
30.
Stevenson D.G. and Inglett G.E. ( 2007). Effect of various thermal treatments on the pasting properties of enriched beta-glucan oat products. Journal of Food Science and Technology44: 168-173.
31.
Stratil P., Klejdus B. and Kuban V. ( 2007). Determination of phenolic compounds and their antioxidant activity in fruits and cereals. Talanta71: 1741-1751.
32.
Tsen C.C., Eyestone W. and Weber J.L. ( 1982). Evaluation of the quality of cookies supplemented with distillers dried grain flours. Journal of Food Science47: 684-685.
33.
Tsen C.C., Weber J.L. and Eyestone W. ( 1983). Evaluation of distillers’ dried grain flour as a bread ingredient. Cereal Chemistry60: 295-297.
34.
Waterhouse A.L. ( 2001). Determination of total phenolics. In: Wrolstad R.E. (ed.). Current Protocols in Food Analytical Chemistry, New York: John Wiley and Sons, pp. I.1.1.1-I.1.1.8.
35.
White P.J. and Weber E.J. ( 2003). Lipids of the kernel. In: White P.J. and Johnson L.A. (eds), Corn: Chemistry and Technology. St. Paul MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists, pp. 355-406.
36.
Wu Y.V. and Stringfellow A.C. ( 1986). Simple dry fractionation of corn distillers dried grains and corn distillers dried grains with solubles. Cereal Chemistry63: 60-61.
37.
Wu Y.V., Youngs V.L., Warner K. and Bookwalter G.N. ( 1987). Evaluation of spaghetti supplemented with corn distillers’ dried grains. Cereal Chemistry64: 434-436.
38.
Xu W., Reddy N. and Yang Y. ( 2007). An acidic method of zein extraction from DDGS. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry55: 6279-6284.
