The 2023 publication of the first US National Action Plan (NAP) on Gender-Based Violence (GBV), promising an approach grounded in civil and human rights, is a momentous step. Despite ambitious objectives for responding to GBV, the NAP largely evades the empirical evidence that most perpetrators are men and boys. I contend that its prevention goals are undermined by lost opportunities to interrogate patriarchal masculinities. By examining US data about victimization and perpetration, I propose ways to align the plan more closely with international human rights approaches to GBV.
AbrahamM. (2000). Speaking the unspeakable: Marital violence among south asian immigrants in the United States. Rutgers University Press.
2.
AdamsD. (2007). Why do they kill?: Men who murder their intimate partners. Vanderbilt University Press.
3.
AndersonK. L.UmbersonD. (2001). Gendering violence: Masculinity and power in men’s accounts of domestic violence. Gender & Society, 15(3), 358–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124301015003003
4.
AnithaS. (2019). Understanding economic abuse through an intersectional lens: Financial abuse, control, and exploitation of women’s productive and reproductive labor. Violence Against Women, 25(15), 1854–1877. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218824050
5.
BacchiC. (2012). Introducing the ‘what’s the problem represented to be?’ Approach. In BletsasA.BeasleyC. (Eds.), Engaging with Carol Bacchi: Strategic interventions and exchanges (pp. 21–24). The University of Adelaide Press.
6.
BakerC.SteinN. (2016). Obscuring gender-based violence: Marriage promotion and teen dating violence research. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 37(1), 87–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2016.1116301
7.
BasileK. C.SmithS. G.KresnowM.KhatiwadaS.LeemisR. W. (2022). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2016/2017 report on sexual violence. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
8.
BederaN.NordmeyerK. (2015). “Never go out alone”: An analysis of college rape prevention tips. Sexuality & Culture, 19(3), 533–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-015-9274-5
9.
Bettinger-LopezC. (2019). Developing a national plan of action on violence against women and gender violence: A human rights approach. In StoeverJ. (Ed.), The politicization of safety: Critical perspectives on domestic violence responses (pp. 362–379). New York University Press.
BuchananN. T.SettlesI. H.WoodsK. C. (2008). Comparing sexual harassment subtypes among black and white women by military rank: Double jeopardy, the Jezebel, and the cult of truwomanhood. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(4), 347–361. 10.1111/j.147-6402.2008.0045
12.
BurrellS. (2020). Male agents of change and disassociating from the problem in the prevention of violence against women. In LuytR.StarckK. (Eds.), Masculine power and gender equality: Masculinities as change agents (pp. 35–54). Springer.
13.
CantorD.FisherB.ChibnallS.HarpsS.TownsendR.ThomasG.MaddenK. (2020). Report on the AAU campus climate survey on sexual assault and misconduct.Westat.
14.
CaseyE. A.CarlsonJ.Fraguela-RiosC.KimballE.NeugutT. B.TolmanR. M.EdlesonJ. L. (2013). Context, challenges, and tensions in global efforts to engage men in the prevention of violence against women: An ecological analysis. Men and Masculinities, 16(2), 228–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X12472336
15.
CeriseS. (2011). A different world is possible: A call for long-term and targeted action to prevent violence against women and girls. End Violence Against Women.
16.
CharlesN.MackayF. (2013). Feminist politics and framing contests: Domestic violence policy in Scotland and Wales. Critical Social Policy, 33(4), 593–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018313483488
17.
ChenY.MendesK.GosseC.HodsonJ.VeletsianosG. (2025). Canadian gender-based violence prevention programs: Gaps and opportunities. Violence Against Women, 31(10), 2682–2704. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012241259727
18.
Chief ElkL.DevereauxS. (2014). The failure of bystander intervention. New Inquiry, 12–23.
19.
CokerA. L.FisherB. S.BushH. M.SwanS. C.WilliamsC. M.ClearE. M.DeGueS. (2015). Evaluation of the green dot bystander intervention to reduce interpersonal violence among college students across three campuses. Violence Against Women, 21(12), 1507–1527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801214545284
20.
CollierC. N. (2012). Feminist and gender-neutral frames in contemporary child-care and anti-violence policy debates in Canada. Politics & Gender, 8(3), 283–303. https://doi.org/ 10.1017/S1743923X12000323
21.
ConnellR. W.MesserschmidtJ. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender and Society, 19(6), 829–859. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639
22.
CowburnM. (2010). Invisible men: Social reactions to male sexual coercion – bringing men and masculinities into community safety and public policy. Critical Social Policy, 30(2), 225–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018309358308
23.
CoyM. (2017). Prostitution in (and out of) policy on violence against women and girls in the UK. Journal of Gender-Based Violence, 1(1), 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1332/239868017X14896674831478
24.
CoyM. (2024). Violence against women in the U.S.: Theory, research and policy. Routledge.
25.
CoyM.LovettJ.KellyL. (2008). Realising rights, fulfilling obligations: A template integrated strategy on violence against women for the UK. End Violence Against Women Coalition.
26.
CoyM.TylerM. (2024). The sexual exploitation of pornography, prostitution, and trafficking in Coy, M. violence against women in the U.S.: Theory, research and policy. Routledge.
27.
CrenshawK. W. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039
28.
DauerS. (2019). Human rights responses to violence against women. In ReillyN. (Ed.), International human rights of women (pp. 229–245). Springer.
29.
DavisA. Y. (1989). Women, culture & politics. Random House.
30.
DeerS. (2015). The beginning and end of rape: Confronting sexual violence in Native America. University of Minnesota Press.
31.
DeGueS.SimonT. R.BasileK. C.YeeS. L.LangK.SpivakH. (2012). Moving forward by looking back: Reflecting on a decade of CDC’s work in sexual violence prevention, 2000–2010. Journal of Women’s Health, 21(12), 1211–1218. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2012.3973
32.
DeKeseredyW. (2021). Bringing feminist sociological analyses of patriarchy back to the forefront of the study of woman abuse. Violence Against Women, 27(5), 621–638. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220958485
33.
DeKeseredyW. S. (2018). Confronting adult pornography. In DeKeseredyW. S.DragiewiczM. (Eds.), Routledge handbook of critical criminology (pp. 455–464). Routledge.
34.
DeKeseredyW. S.DragiewiczM. (2009). Shifting public policy direction: Gender-focused versus bi-directional intimate partner violence. Domestic Violence Info Report.
35.
DeKeseredyW. S.IpP. L.DeKeseredyA. (2023). Moving beyond abstracted empiricism: Pursuing new sociological directions in theorizing male-to-female sexual assault on university/college campuses. Critical Criminology, 31(13), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-023-09694-9
36.
DinnoA. (2017). Homicide rates of transgender individuals in the United States: 2010-2014. American Journal of Public Health, 107(9), 1441–1447. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.303878
FarleyM.GoldingJ. M.MatthewsE. S.MalamuthN. M.JarrettL. (2017). Comparing sex buyers with men who do not buy sex: New data on prostitution and trafficking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(23), 3601–3625. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515600874
40.
FitzgeraldL. F.CortinaL. M. (2018). Sexual harassment in work organizations: A view from the 21st century. In TravisC. B.WhiteJ. W.RutherfordA.WilliamsW. S.CookS. L.WycheK. F. (Eds.), APA handbook of the psychology of women: Perspectives on women's private and public lives (pp. 215–234). American Psychological Association.
41.
FosheeV. A.BaumanK. E.EnnettS. T.SuchindranC.BenefieldT.LinderG. F. (2005). Assessing the effects of the dating violence prevention program “safe dates” using random coefficient regression modeling. Prevention Science, 6, 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-005-0007-0
42.
FranksM. A. (2017). “Revenge porn” reform: A view from the front lines. Fla. L. Rev, 69, 1251–1337.
43.
FuluE.JewkesR.RoselliT.Garcia-MorenoC., & UN Multi-country Cross-sectional Study on Men and Violence research team. (2013). Prevalence of and factors associated with male perpetration of intimate partner violence: Findings from the UN Multi-country Cross-sectional Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the Pacific. The Lancet Global Health, 1(4), e187–e207. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(13)70074-3
44.
García-MorenoC.ZimmermanC.Morris-GehringA.HeiseL.AminA.AbrahamsN.MontoyaO.Bhate-DeosthaliP.KilonzoN.WattsC. (2015). Addressing violence against women: A call to action. Lancet, 385(9978), 1685–1695. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61830-4
45.
Gatt LopezR. (2025). Sexual strangulation: Unpacking the realities of this harmful and dangerous practice. Culture Reframed.
46.
GibbsA.DunkleK.RamsoomarL.WillanS.Jama ShaiN.ChatterjiS.JewkesR., (2020). New learnings on drivers of men’s physical and/or sexual violence against their female partners, and women’s experiences of this, and the implications for prevention interventions. Global Health Action, 13(1), 1739845. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2020.1739845
47.
GoldbergH.StuppP.OkorohE.BeseraG.GoodmanD.DanelI. (2016). Female genital mutilation/cutting in the US: Updated estimates of women and girls at risk, 2012. Public Health Reports, 131(2), 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335491613100218
48.
GondolfE. W. (2002). Batterer intervention systems. Sage.
49.
Hagemann-WhiteC.KavemannB.KindlerH.MeysenT.PuchertR.GrafeB.BuscheM.GablerS.KunglM.SchindlerG.SchuckH. (2021). Review of research on factors at play in perpetration. University of Osnabrück.
50.
HambyS. (2014). Intimate partner and sexual violence research: Scientific progress, scientific challenges, and gender. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(3), 149–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014520723
51.
HearnJ. (1998). The violences of men. Sage.
52.
HearnJ.StridS.HusuL.VerlooM. (2016). Interrogating violence against women and state violence policy: Gendered intersectionalities and the quality of policy in the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK. Current Sociology, 64(4), 551–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392116639220
HerbenickD.FuT. C.PattersonC.GonzalezY. R.LuetkeM.ValdiviaD. S.RosenbergM. (2021). Prevalence and characteristics of choking/strangulation during sex: Findings from a probability survey of undergraduate students. Journal of American College Health, 71(4), 1059–1073. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1920599
55.
HermanJ. L. (1988). Considering sex offenders: A model of addiction. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 13(4), 695–724. https://doi.org/10.1086/494464
56.
HirschJ.KhanS. (2020). Sexual citizens: A landmark study on sex, power, and assault on campus. W. W. Norton.
57.
HooksB. (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate politics. South End Press.
58.
ItzinC. (2000). Gendering domestic violence: The influence of feminism on policy and practice. In HanmerJ.ItzinC. (Eds.), Home truths about domestic violence: Feminist influences on policy and practice – A reader (pp. 356–380). Routledge.
59.
JamesS. E.HermanJ. L.RankinS.KeislingM.MottetL.AnafiM. (2016). The Report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. National Center for Transgender Equality.
60.
JewkesR.FloodM.LangJ. (2015). From work with men and boys to changes of social norms and reduction of inequities in gender relations: A conceptual shift in prevention of violence against women and girls. The Lancet, 385(9977), 1580–1589. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61683-4
61.
JiangA.LansfordJ. E. (2023). State-level legal and sociodemographic correlates of child marriage rates in the United States. Children and Youth Services Review, 145, 106798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106798
62.
JohnsonH. (2015). Degendering violence. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 22(3), 390–410.https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxv021
63.
KapurS.ZajicekA.HuntV. (2017). Immigration provisions in the violence against women act: Implications for Asian Indian marriage migrants. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 38(4), 456–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2016.1268872
64.
KatzJ. (2006). The Macho Paradox: Why some men hurt women and how all men can help. Sourcebooks.
65.
KatzJ.MooreJ. (2013). Bystander education training for campus sexual assault prevention: An initial meta-analysis. Violence and Victims, 28(6), 1054–1067. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.vv-d-12-00113
66.
KellyL. (1988). Surviving sexual violence. Polity Press.
67.
KolyshS. (2021). Everyday violence: The public harassment of women and LGBTQ people. Rutgers University Press.
68.
KrookM. L. (2020). Violence against women in politics. Oxford University Press.
69.
LeemisR. W.FriarN.KhatiwadaS.ChenM. S.KresnowM.SmithS. G.CaslinS.BasileK. C. (2022). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2016/2017 report on intimate partner violence. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
70.
LucchesiA.Echo-HawkA. (2018). Missing and murdered indigenous women and girls: A snapshot of data from 71 urban cities in the United States. Urban Indian Health Institute.
71.
MacKinnonC. A. (2019). Butterfly politics: Changing the world for women. Harvard University Press.
72.
ManneK. (2020). Entitled: How male privilege hurts women. Penguin Press.
73.
MarganskiA. J. (2019). Making a murderer: The importance of gender and violence against women in mass murder events. Sociology Compass, 13(9), e12730. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12730
74.
MartinP. Y. (2016). The rape prone culture of academic contexts: Fraternities and athletics. Gender & Society, 30(1), 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243215612708
MessnerM. A.GreenbergM. A.PeretzT. (2015). Some men: Feminist allies and the movement to end violence against women. Oxford University Press.
78.
MorrisE. W.RatajczakK. (2019). Critical masculinity studies and research on violence against women: An assessment of past scholarship and future directions. Violence Against Women, 25(16), 1980–2006. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219875827
79.
MuehlenhardC. L.PetersonZ. D.HumphreysT. P.JozkowskiK. N. (2017). Evaluating the one-in-five statistic: Women's risk of sexual assault while in college. Journal of Sex Research, 54(4-5), 549–576. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1295014
80.
PeaseB. (2019). Facing patriarchy: From a violent gender order to a culture of peace. Zed Books.
PenceE.ShepardM. (1999). An introduction: Developing a coordinated community response. In ShepardM.PenceE. (Eds.), Coordinating community responses to domestic violence: Lessons from Duluth and beyond (pp. 3–24). Sage.
83.
PeraltaR. L.TuttleL. A.SteeleJ. L. (2011). At the intersection of interpersonal violence, masculinity, and alcohol use: The experiences of heterosexual male perpetrators of intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 16(4), 387–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801210363539
84.
PeretzT.VidmarC. M. (2021). Men, masculinities, and gender-based violence: The broadening scope of recent research. Sociology Compass, 15(3), e12861. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12861
85.
PotterH. (2008). Battle cries: Black women and intimate partner abuse. New York University Press.
86.
PotterS. J.MoynihanM. M.StapletonJ. G. (2011). Using social self-identification in social marketing materials aimed at reducing violence against women on campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(5), 971–990. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510365870
87.
PresserL. (2008). Been a heavy life: Stories of violent men. University of Illinois Press.
88.
PtacekJ. (1990). Why do men batter their wives? In YlloK.BogradM. (Eds.), Feminist perspectives on wife abuse (pp133–157). Sage.
89.
PtacekJ. (2023). Feeling trapped: Social class and violence against women. University of California Press.
90.
QuadaraA. (2014). The everydayness of rape: How understanding sexual assault perpetration can inform prevention efforts. In HenryN.PowellA. (Eds.), Preventing sexual violence: Interdisciplinary approaches to overcoming a rape culture (pp. 41–63). Palgrave.
91.
QuinnB. A. (2002). Sexual harassment and masculinity: The power and meaning of “girl watching”. Gender & Society, 16(3), 386–402. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3081785 https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243202016003007
92.
RadfordJ. (1992). Introduction. In J. RadfordJ.RussellD. E. H. (Eds.), Femicide: The politics of woman killing (pp 3–12). Open University Press.
93.
RichieB. E. (2004). Research on violence against women and family violence: The challenges and the promise. In FisherB. (Ed.), Violence against women and family violence: Developments in research, practice, and policy (pp. IV-1-1). National Criminal Justice.
94.
RitchieA. J. (2017). Invisible no more: Police violence against Black women and women of color. Beacon Press.
95.
SalterM. (2016). ‘Real men don't hit women’: Constructing masculinity in the prevention of violence against women. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 49(4), 463–479. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004865815587031
96.
SchwartzM. D.DeKeseredyW. (1997). Sexual assault on the college campus: The role of male peer support. Sage.
97.
SenP. (2005). Crimes of honour: Value and meaning. In WelchmanL.HossainS. (Eds.), ‘Honour’: Crimes, paradigms and violence against women (pp 42–63). Zed Books.
98.
Senent JuliánR. M. (2019). Tensions between feminist principles and the demand for prostitution in the neoliberal age: A critical analysis of sex buyer’s discourse. Recerca. Revista de Pensament I Anàlisi, 24(2), 109–128. https://doi.org/10.6035/recerca.2019.24.2.6
99.
ShivelyM.KliorysK.WheelerK.HuntD. (2012). A national overview of prostitution and sex trafficking demand reduction efforts, final report. US Department of Justice.
100.
SmithS. G.BasileK. C.KresnowM. (2022). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey: 2016/2017 Report on stalking – Updated release. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
101.
SpencerC. M.Rivas-KoehlM.AstleS.ToewsM. L.AndersK. M.McAllisterP. (2022). Risk markers for male perpetration of sexual assault on college campuses: A meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(4), 2486–2497. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221097437
102.
StarkE. (2007). Coercive control: How men entrap women in personal life. Oxford University Press.
103.
SwaineA. (2017). Globalising women, peace and security: Trends in national action plans. In AroussiA. (Ed.), Rethinking national action plans on women, peace and security (pp. 7–27). IOS Press.
104.
SweetP. L. (2015). Chronic victims, risky women: Domestic violence advocacy and the medicalization of abuse. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 41(1), 81–106. https://doi.org/10.1086/681772
The Equality Institute and UN Women. (2023). Together for prevention: Handbook on multisectoral national action plans to prevent violence against women and girls. UN Women.
107.
ThumaE. (2019). All our trials: Prisons, policing, and the feminist fight to end violence. University of Illinois Press.
108.
TrueJ. (2021). Violence against women: What everyone needs to know. Oxford University Press.
109.
Unchained At Last. (2021). Unchained At last: US’ child marriage problem. Unchained At Last.
UN Women. (2012). Handbook for national action plans on violence against women. UN Women.
112.
van RoostK.HornM.KoskiA. (2022). Child marriage or statutory rape? A comparison of law and practice across the US. Journal of Adolescent Health, 70(3), S72–S77. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.10.023
113.
Vera-GrayF. (2018). The right amount of panic: How women trade freedom for safety. Policy Press.
114.
VillalónR. (2010). Violence against Latina immigrants: Citizenship, inequality, and community. New York University Press.
115.
Violence Policy Center. (2022). When men murder women: An analysis of 2020 homicide data. Violence Policy Center.
116.
WaltersM. L.ChenJ.BreidingM. J. (2013). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey (NISVS): 2010 findings on victimization by sexual orientation. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
117.
WeinerE. (2023). A missing piece? Men and the puzzle of gender mainstreaming in the European Union. Men and Masculinities, 26(4), 604–623. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X231192024
118.
WeldonS. L.HtunM. (2013). Feminist mobilisation and progressive policy change: Why governments take action to combat violence against women. Gender & Development, 21(2), 231–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2013.802158
119.
WellsL.FotheringhamS. (2022). A global review of violence prevention plans: Where are the men and boys?International Social Work, 65(6), 1232–1248. https://doi.org/10.1177/00208728209634
120.
WhiteJ. W.SienkiewiczH. C.SmithP. H. (2019). Envisioning future directions: Conversations with leaders in domestic and sexual assault advocacy, policy, service, and research. Violence Against Women, 25(1), 105–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218815771
121.
White House. (2023). U.S. national plan to end gender-based violence: Strategies for action. The White House.
122.
World Health Organization. (2007). Engaging men and boys in changing gender-based inequity in health: Evidence from programme interventions. WHO.
123.
YakubovichA. R.SteeleB.MosesC.TremblayE.ArcenalM.O'CampoP.MasonR.Du MontJ.HuijbregtsM.HoughL.SimA.ShastriP. (2023). Recommendations for Canada's National Action Plan to end gender-based violence: Perspectives from leaders, service providers and survivors in Canada’s largest city during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada: Research, Policy and Practice, 43(4), 155–170. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp. 43.4.01
