This systematic review investigates disparities in COVID-19 outcomes (infections, hospitalizations, and deaths) between urban and rural populations in the United States. Of the 3,091 articles screened, 55 were selected. Most studies (n = 43) conducted national analyses, using 2020 data, with some extending into 2021. Findings show urban areas had higher COVID-19 cases and hospitalizations in 2020, while rural areas saw increased cases in 2021 and mixed hospitalization results. Urban areas also had higher mortality rates in 2020, with rural rates rising in 2021 and 2022. Most studies did not explore reasons for urban/rural differences. The few that did found that vulnerable groups, including racially and ethnically minoritized populations, older adults, and those with comorbidities and lower socioeconomic status and vaccination rates, experienced exacerbated disparities in rural regions. COVID-19 outcomes varied over time and by area due to population density, healthcare infrastructure, and socioeconomic factors. Tailored interventions are essential for health equity and effective policies.
AbramsH. R.LoomerL.GandhiA.GrabowskiD. C. (2020). Characteristics of U.S. nursing homes with COVID-19 cases. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 68(8), 1653–1656. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.16661
2.
AhmedR.WilliamsonM.HamidM. A.AshrafN. (2020). United States county-level COVID-19 death rates and case fatality rates vary by region and urban status. Healthcare (Basel), 8(3), 330. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8030330
3.
AljassimN.OstiniR. (2020). Health literacy in rural and urban populations: A systematic review. Patient Education and Counseling, 103(10), 2142–2154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2020.06.007
4.
AlvidrezJ.CastilleD.Laude-SharpM.RosarioA.TaborD. (2019). The national institute on minority health and health disparities research framework. American Journal of Public Health, 109(Suppl. 1), S16–S20. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2018.304883
5.
AndrewsM. R.TamuraK.BestJ. N.CeasarJ. N.BateyK. G.KearseT. A.Jr.AllenL. V.3rdBaumerY.CollinsB. S.MitchellV. M.Powell-WileyT. M. (2021). Spatial clustering of county-level COVID-19 rates in the U.S. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(22), 12170. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212170
6.
AnzaloneA. J.HorswellR.HendricksB. M.ChuS.HillegassW. B.BeasleyW. H.HarperJ. R.KimbleW.RosenC. J.MieleL.McClayJ. C.SantangeloS. L.HodderS. L. (2023). Higher hospitalization and mortality rates among SARS-CoV-2-infected persons in rural America. The Journal of Rural Health, 39(1), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12689
7.
BerlandH.HughesD. (2021). Is rural Kansas prepared? An assessment of resources related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Kansas Journal of Medicine, 14, 95–102. https://doi.org/10.17161/kjm.vol1414597
8.
BrandtK.GoelV.KeelerC.BellG. J.AielloA. E.Corbie-SmithG.WilsonE.FleischauerA.EmchM.BoyceR. M. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 testing in North Carolina: Racial, ethnic, and geographic disparities. Health & Place, 69, 102576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102576
9.
CallaghanT.LueckJ. A.TrujilloK. L.FerdinandA. O. (2021). Rural and urban differences in COVID-19 prevention behaviors. The Journal of Rural Health, 37(2), 287–295. https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12556
ChangM. H.MoonesingheR.TrumanB. I. (2021). Racial and ethnic differences in COVID-19 hospitalizations by metropolitan status among Medicare beneficiaries, 1 January-31 December 2020. Journal of Public Health, 44(2), e211–e220. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab355
15.
ChangM. H.MoonesingheR.TrumanB. I. (2022). COVID-19 hospitalization by race and ethnicity: Association with chronic conditions among Medicare beneficiaries, January 1-September 30, 2020. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 9(1), 325–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00960-y
16.
ChoiS. E.YangT. C. (2021). Are older populations at a disadvantage? County-level analysis of confirmed COVID-19 cases in urban and rural America. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 76(3), e93–e98. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa182
DixonB. E.GrannisS. J.LembckeL. R.ValviN.RobertsA. R.EmbiP. J. (2021). The synchronicity of COVID-19 disparities: Statewide epidemiologic trends in SARS-CoV-2 morbidity, hospitalization, and mortality among racial minorities and in rural America. PLoS ONE, 16(7), e0255063. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255063
19.
EpanéJ. P.ZengulF.RamamonjiariveloZ.McRoyL.Weech-MaldonadoR. (2023). Resources availability and COVID-19 mortality among US counties. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1098571. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1098571
20.
FanV. S.DominitzJ. A.EastmentM. C.LockeE. R.GreenP.BerryK.O’HareA. M.ShahJ. A.CrothersK.IoannouG. N. (2021). Risk factors for testing positive for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in a National United States Healthcare System. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 73(9), e3085–e3094. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1624
21.
FergusonJ. M.Abdel MagidH. S.PurnellA. L.KiangM. V.OsborneT. F. (2021). Differences in COVID-19 testing and test positivity among veterans, United States, 2020. Public Health Reports, 136(4), 483–492. https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549211009498
22.
Fielding-MillerR. K.SundaramM. E.BrouwerK. (2020). Social determinants of COVID-19 mortality at the county level. PLoS ONE, 15(10), Article e0240151. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240151
23.
FinchH.Hernández FinchM. E.MytychK. (2021). Not one pandemic: A multilevel mixture model investigation of the relationship between poverty and the course of the COVID-19 pandemic death rate in the United States. Frontiers in Sociology, 6, 629042. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2021.629042
24.
GarciaM. C.RossenL. M.BastianB.FaulM.DowlingN. F.ThomasC. C.SchiebL.HongY.YoonP. W.IademarcoM. F. (2019). Potentially excess deaths from the five leading causes of death in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan counties—United States, 2010-2017. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 68(10), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6810a1
25.
GiannouchosT. V.LiZ.HungP.LiX.OlatosiB. (2023). Rural-urban disparities in hospital admissions and mortality among patients with COVID-19: Evidence from South Carolina from 2021 to 2022. Journal of Community Health, 48(5), 824–833. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-023-01216-6
26.
GracnerT.AgarwalM.MuraliK. P.StoneP. W.LarsonE. L.FuruyaE. Y.HarrisonJ. M.DickA. W. (2021). Association of infection-related hospitalization with cognitive impairment among nursing home residents. JAMA Network Open, 4(4), Article e217528. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.7528
27.
GreenhouseA. R.RichardD.KhakhariaA.GoodmanM.PhillipsL. S.GazmararianJ. A. (2024). The social, demographic, and clinical predictors of COVID-19 severity: A model-based analysis of United States Veterans. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 11, 3172–3181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01773-5
28.
GromeH. N.RamanR.KatzB. D.FillM. M.JonesT. F.SchaffnerW.DunnJ. (2022). Disparities in COVID-19 mortality rates: Implications for rural health policy and preparedness. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 28(5), 478–485. https://doi.org/10.1097/phh.0000000000001507
29.
HatfieldK. M.BaggsJ.MaillisA.WarnerS.JerniganJ. A.KadriS. S.KlompasM.ReddyS. C. (2023). Assessment of hospital-onset SARS-CoV-2 infection rates and testing practices in the US, 2020-2022. JAMA Network Open, 6(8), Article e2329441. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.29441
HuangQ.JacksonS.DerakhshanS.LeeL.PhamE.JacksonA.CutterS. L. (2021). Urban-rural differences in COVID-19 exposures and outcomes in the South: A preliminary analysis of South Carolina. PLoS ONE, 16(2), Article e0246548. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246548
32.
Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on the Review and Assessment of the NIH’s Strategic Research Plan and Budget to Reduce and Ultimately Eliminate Health. (2006). The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. In ThomsonG. E.MitchellF.WilliamsM. B. (Eds.), Examining the health disparities research plan of the national institutes of health: Unfinished business. National Academies Press; National Academy of Sciences, pp 143–152.
33.
IoannouG. N.FergusonJ. M.O’HareA. M.BohnertA. S. B.BackusL. I.BoykoE. J.OsborneT. F.MaciejewskiM. L.BowlingC. B.HynesD. M.IwashynaT. J.SaysanaM.GreenP.BerryK. (2021). Changes in the associations of race and rurality with SARS-CoV-2 infection, mortality, and case fatality in the United States from February 2020 to March 2021: A population-based cohort study. PLoS Medicine, 18(10), Article e1003807. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003807
34.
IyandaA. E.BoakyeK. A.LuY.OppongJ. R. (2022). Racial/ethnic heterogeneity and rural-urban disparity of COVID-19 case fatality ratio in the USA: A negative binomial and GIS-based analysis. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 9(2), 708–721. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-021-01006-7
35.
JacksonS. L.DerakhshanS.BlackwoodL.LeeL.HuangQ.HabetsM.CutterS. L. (2021). Spatial disparities of COVID-19 cases and fatalities in United States counties. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16), 8259. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168259
36.
JensenL.MonnatS. M.GreenJ. J.HunterL. M.SliwinskiM. J. (2020). Rural population health and aging: Toward a multilevel and multidimensional research agenda for the 2020s. American Journal of Public Health, 110(9), 1328–1331. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2020.305782
37.
JiangD. H.RoyD. J.PollockB. D.ShahN. D.McCoyR. G. (2022). Association of stay-at-home orders and COVID-19 incidence and mortality in rural and urban United States: A population-based study. BMJ Open, 12(4), Article e055791. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055791
38.
JonesM.BhattarM.HenningE.MonnatS. M. (2023). Explaining the U.S. rural disadvantage in COVID-19 case and death rates during the Delta-Omicron surge: The role of politics, vaccinations, population health, and social determinants. Social Science & Medicine, 335, 116180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116180
39.
KarimS. A.ChenH. F. (2021). Deaths from COVID-19 in rural, micropolitan, and metropolitan areas: A county-level comparison. The Journal of Rural Health, 37(1), 124–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12533
40.
KennedyJ. L.ForrestJ. C.YoungS. G.AmickB.WilliamsM.JamesL.SnowdenJ.CardenasV. M.BootheD.KirkpatrickC.ModiZ.CaidK.OwensS.KouassiM.MannR.PuttC.Irish-ClardyK.MacechkoM.BrimberryR. K.. . .BoehmeK. W. (2022). Temporal variations in seroprevalence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infections by race and ethnicity in Arkansas. Open Forum Infectious Diseases, 9(5), ofac154. https://doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofac154
41.
KhanS. S.KrefmanA. E.McCabeM. E.PetitoL. C.YangX.KershawK. N.PoolL. R.AllenN. B. (2022). Association between county-level risk groups and COVID-19 outcomes in the United States: A socioecological study. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 81. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12469-y
42.
KhubchandaniJ.SharmaS.PriceJ. H.WiblishauserM. J.SharmaM.WebbF. J. (2021). COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy in the United States: A rapid national assessment. Journal of Community Health, 46(2), 270–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-020-00958-x
43.
KitchenC.HatefE.ChangH. Y.WeinerJ. P.KharraziH. (2021). Assessing the association between area deprivation index on COVID-19 prevalence: A contrast between rural and urban U.S. jurisdictions. AIMS Public Health, 8(3), 519–530. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2021042
LakhaniH. V.PillaiS. S.ZehraM.SharmaI.SodhiK. (2020). Systematic review of clinical insights into novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic: Persisting challenges in U.S. rural population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4279. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124279
46.
LiD.GaynorS. M.QuickC.ChenJ. T.StephensonB. J. K.CoullB. A.LinX. (2021). Identifying US county-level characteristics associated with high COVID-19 burden. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1007. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11060-9
47.
LiZ.LewisB.BerneyK.HalliseyE.WilliamsA. M.WhitemanA.Rivera-GonzálezL. O.ClarkeK. E. N.ClaytonH.TincherT.OpsomerJ. D.BuschM. P.GundlapalliA.JonesJ. M. (2022). Social vulnerability and rurality associated with higher SARS-CoV-2 infection-induced seroprevalence: A nationwide blood donor study, United States, July 2020—June 2021. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 75(1), e133–e143. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciac105
48.
LinQ.PaykinS.HalpernD.Martinez-CardosoA.KolakM. (2022). Assessment of structural barriers and racial group disparities of COVID-19 mortality with spatial analysis. JAMA Network Open, 5(3), Article e220984. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.0984
49.
LundbergD. J.ChoA.RaquibR.NsoesieE. O.Wrigley-FieldE.StokesA. C. (2022). Geographic and temporal patterns in Covid-19 mortality by race and ethnicity in the United States from March 2020 to February 2022. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.20.22277872
50.
LundbergD. J.Wrigley-FieldE.ChoA.RaquibR.NsoesieE. O.PaglinoE.ChenR.KiangM. V.RileyA. R.ChenY. H.CharpignonM. L.HempsteadK.PrestonS. H.EloI. T.GlymourM. M.StokesA. C. (2023). COVID-19 mortality by race and ethnicity in US metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, March 2020 to February 2022. JAMA Network Open, 6(5), Article e2311098. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.11098
51.
MacCallum-BridgesC. L.HirschtickJ. L.AllgoodK. L.RyuS.OrellanaR. C.FleischerN. L. (2024). Cross-sectional population-based estimates of a rural-urban disparity in prevalence of long COVID among Michigan adults with polymerase chain reaction-confirmed COVID-19, 2020-2022. The Journal of Rural Health, 40(2), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12807
52.
MackeyK.AyersC. K.KondoK. K.SahaS.AdvaniS. M.YoungS.SpencerH.RusekM.AndersonJ.VeazieS.SmithM.KansagaraD. (2021). Racial and ethnic disparities in COVID-19-related infections, hospitalizations, and deaths: A systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine, 174(3), 362–373. https://doi.org/10.7326/m20-6306
53.
MatthewsK. A.UllrichF.GagliotiA. H.DuganS.ChenM. S.HallD. M. (2021). Nonmetropolitan COVID-19 incidence and mortality rates surpassed metropolitan rates within the first 24 weeks of the pandemic declaration: United States, March 1-October 18, 2020. The Journal of Rural Health, 37(2), 272–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12555
54.
McCoyR. G.CampbellR. L.MullanA. F.BucksC. M.ClementsC. M.ReichardR. R.JefferyM. M. (2022). Changes in all-cause and cause-specific mortality during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in Minnesota: Population-based study. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 2291. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14743-z
55.
McLaughlinJ. M.KhanF.PughS.AnguloF. J.SchmittH. J.IsturizR. E.JodarL.SwerdlowD. L. (2021). County-level predictors of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases and deaths in the United States: What happened, and where do we go from here?Clinical Infectious Diseases, 73(7), e1814–e1821. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1729
56.
MillettG. A.JonesA. T.BenkeserD.BaralS.MercerL.BeyrerC.HonermannB.LankiewiczE.MenaL.CrowleyJ. S.SherwoodJ.SullivanP. S. (2020). Assessing differential impacts of COVID-19 on black communities. Annals of Epidemiology, 47, 37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2020.05.003
57.
MoskalewiczA.OremusM. (2020). No clear choice between Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and appraisal tool for cross-sectional studies to assess methodological quality in cross-sectional studies of health-related quality of life and breast cancer. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 120, 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2019.12.013
58.
MouradA.TurnerN. A.BakerA. W.OkekeN. L.NarayanasamyS.RolfeR.EngemannJ. J.CoxG. M.StoutJ. E. (2021). Social disadvantage, politics, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 trends: A county-level analysis of United States Data. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 72(10), e604–e607. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1374
59.
PageM. J.McKenzieJ. E.BossuytP. M.BoutronI.HoffmannT. C.MulrowC. D.ShamseerL.TetzlaffJ. M.AklE. A.BrennanS. E.ChouR.GlanvilleJ.GrimshawJ. M.HróbjartssonA.LaluM. M.LiT.LoderE. W.Mayo-WilsonE.McDonaldS.. . .MoherD. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
60.
PaglinoE.LundbergD. J.Wrigley-FieldE.ZhouZ.WassermanJ. A.RaquibR.ChenY. H.HempsteadK.PrestonS. H.EloI. T.GlymourM. M.StokesA. C. (2024). Excess natural-cause mortality in US counties and its association with reported COVID-19 deaths. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 121(6), Article e2313661121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2313661121
61.
PaulR.AdeyemiO.GhoshS.PokhrelK.ArifA. A. (2021). Dynamics of Covid-19 mortality and social determinants of health: A spatiotemporal analysis of exceedance probabilities. Annals of Epidemiology, 62, 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.05.006
62.
PaulR.ArifA.PokhrelK.GhoshS. (2021). The association of social determinants of health with COVID-19 mortality in rural and urban counties. The Journal of Rural Health, 37(2), 278–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12557
63.
PaulR.ArifA. A.AdeyemiO.GhoshS.HanD. (2020). Progression of COVID-19 from urban to rural areas in the United States: A spatiotemporal analysis of prevalence rates. The Journal of Rural Health, 36(4), 591–601. https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12486
64.
PopayJ.RobertsH. M.SowdenA. J.PetticrewM.AraiL.RodgersM.BrittenN. (2006). Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews. A product from the ESRC methods programme (Version 1). Lancaster University.
65.
QeadanF.MensahN. A.TingeyB.BernR.ReesT.MaddenE. F.PorucznikC. A.EnglishK.HondaT. (2021). The association between opioids, environmental, demographic, and socioeconomic indicators and COVID-19 mortality rates in the United States: An ecological study at the county level. Archives of Public Health, 79(1), 101. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-021-00626-z
66.
RafiqR.AhmedT.Yusuf Sarwar UddinM. (2022). Structural modeling of COVID-19 spread in relation to human mobility. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 13, 100528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2021.100528
67.
RazzaghiH.WangY.LuH.MarshallK. E.DowlingN. F.Paz-BaileyG.TwentymanE. R.PeacockG.GreenlundK. J. (2020). Estimated county-level prevalence of selected underlying medical conditions associated with increased risk for severe COVID-19 illness—United States, 2018. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(29), 945–950. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6929a1
68.
RifatS. A. A.LiuW. (2022). One year into the pandemic: The impacts of social vulnerability on COVID-19 outcomes and urban-rural differences in the conterminous United States. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 32(12), 2601–2619. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2021.1979196
69.
SattenspielL.OrbannC.BoganA.RamirezH.PirroneS.DahalS.McElroyJ. A.WikleC. K. (2023). Associations between rurality and regional differences in sociodemographic factors and the 1918-20 influenza and 2020-21 COVID-19 pandemics in Missouri counties: An ecological study. PLoS ONE, 18(8), e0290294. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290294
70.
Schnake-MahlA.BilalU. (2022). Disaggregating disparities: A case study of heterogenous COVID-19 disparities across waves, geographies, social vulnerability, and political lean in Louisiana. Preventive Medicine Reports, 28, 101833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.101833
71.
ScholdJ. D.KingK. L.HusainS. A.PoggioE. D.BucciniL. D.MohanS. (2021). COVID-19 mortality among kidney transplant candidates is strongly associated with social determinants of health. American Journal of Transplantation, 21(7), 2563–2572. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.16578
72.
StoneP. W.AgarwalM.Pogorzelska-MaziarzM. (2020). Infection preventionist staffing in nursing homes. American Journal of Infection Control, 48(3), 330–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2019.12.010
73.
TangC. Y.LiT.HaynesT. A.McElroyJ. A.RitterD.HammerR. D.SampsonC.WebbyR.HangJ.WanX. F. (2023). Rural populations facilitated early SARS-CoV-2 evolution and transmission in Missouri, USA. npj Viruses, 1, 7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44298-023-00005-1
74.
TraversJ. L.AgarwalM.EstradaL. V.DickA. W.GracnerT.WuB.StoneP. W. (2021). Assessment of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality rates among nursing homes with different proportions of black residents. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 22(4), 893–898.e892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2021.02.014
75.
TsaiY.VogtT. M.ZhouF. (2021). Patient characteristics and costs associated with COVID-19-related medical care among Medicare fee-for-service beneficiaries. Annals of Internal Medicine, 174(8), 1101–1109. https://doi.org/10.7326/m21-1102
76.
UschnerD.BottM.LagardeW. H.KeatingJ.TappH.BerryA. A.SealsA. L.MunawarI.SchieffelinJ.YukichJ.SantacatterinaM.GunaratneM.FetteL. M.BurkeB.StrylewiczG.EdelsteinS. L.AhmedA.MillerK.SandersJ. W., . . . on behalf of the COVID-19 Community Research Partnership. (2022). Breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infections after vaccination in North Carolina. Vaccines (Basel), 10(11), 1922. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10111922
77.
WangY.LiuY.StruthersJ.LianM. (2021). Spatiotemporal characteristics of the COVID-19 epidemic in the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 72(4), 643–651. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa934
78.
WellsG. A.WellsG.SheaB.SheaB.O’ConnellD.PetersonJ.Welch LososM.TugwellP.GaS. W.ZelloG. A.PetersenJ. A. (2014). The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:79550924
YangB. K.CarterM. W.NelsonH. W. (2021). Trends in COVID-19 cases, deaths, and staffing shortages in US nursing homes by rural and urban status. Geriatric Nursing, 42(6), 1356–1361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2021.08.016
81.
YuanT.FitzpatrickT.KoN. Y.CaiY.ChenY.ZhaoJ.LiL.XuJ.GuJ.LiJ.HaoC.YangZ.CaiW.ChengC. Y.LuoZ.ZhangK.WuG.MengX.GrulichA. E.. . .ZouH. (2019). Circumcision to prevent HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in men who have sex with men: A systematic review and meta-analysis of global data. The Lancet Global Health, 7(4), e436–e447. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2214-109x(18)30567-9
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
