An Application of the Risk Information Seeking and Processing Model in Understanding College Students’ COVID-19 Vaccination Information Seeking and Behavior

Abstract

This study tested the utility of risk information seeking and processing (RISP) model in understanding college students’ information seeking about COVID-19 vaccines and their vaccination behavior. Participants (N = 158) completed a survey measuring the RISP constructs at Time 1 and their COVID-19 vaccination behavior at Time 2. The RISP model explained 71.1% of the variance in COVID-19 vaccine information seeking. Risk information seeking and attitude toward the COVID-19 vaccine positively influenced college students’ intentions to get the vaccine, which positively predicted their vaccination behavior. Overall, these variables explained 33.4% of the variance in COVID-19 vaccine intention, and 37.2% of the variance in COVID-19 vaccination behavior.

Keywords

risk information seeking and processing (RISP) model COVID-19 vaccine future behavior

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adams

S. H.

Schaub

J. P.

Nagata

J. M.

Park

M. J.

Brindis

C. D.

Irwin

C. E.

Jr. , (2021). Young adult perspectives on COVID-19 vaccinations. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 69(3), 511–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.06.003

Afifi

W. A.

Weiner

J. L.

(2004). Toward a theory of motivated information management. Communication Theory, 14(2), 167–190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00310.x

Armitage

C. J.

Conner

(2001). Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 471–499. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466601164939

Bandura

(1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Prentice Hall.

Brashers

D. E.

Goldsmith

D. J.

Hsieh

(2002). Information seeking and avoiding in health contexts. Human Communication Research, 28(2), 258–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00807.x

Brinker

D. L.

Zhou

Acevedo Callejas

M. L.

MacGeorge

E. L.

(2020). Increasing information seeking about antibiotic risks: Testing a clinical intervention message using the risk information seeking and processing model. Science Communication, 42, 218–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547020914610

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021a). COVID-19 Vaccinations in the United States. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccinations_vacc-total-admin-rate-total

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021b). Vaccine and other medical counter measures. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/planning-preparedness/vaccine-medical-countermeasures.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Demographic trends of COVID-19 cases and deaths in the US reported to CDC web site. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#demographics

10.

Chaiken

Liberman

Eagly

(1989). Heuristic and systematic processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In Uleman

J. S.

Bargh

J. A.

(Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 212–252). Guilford Press.

11.

Diesel

Sterrett

Dasgupta

Kriss

J. L.

Barry

Esschert

K. V.

Whitement

Cadwell

B. L.

Weller

Qualters

J. R.

Harris

Bhatt

Williams

Fox

L. M.

Delman

D. M.

Black

C. L.

Barbour

K. E.

(2021). COVID-19 vaccination coverage among adults—United States, December 14, 2020–May 22, 2021. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70(25), 922–927.

12.

Downs

D. S.

Hausenblas

H. A.

(2005). The theories of reasoned action and planned behavior applied to exercise: A meta-analytic update. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 2(1), 76–97. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2.1.76

13.

Dunwoody

Griffin

R. J.

(2014). The role of channel beliefs in risk information seeking. In Arvai

Rivers

III (Eds.), Effective risk communication (pp. 220–233). Taylor & Francis.

14.

Dunwoody

Griffin

R. J.

(2015). Risk information seeking and processing model. In Cho

Reimer

McComas

K. A.

(Eds.), SAGE handbook of risk communication (pp. 102–116). SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483387918.n14

15.

Dutta-Bergman

M. J.

(2004). Primary sources of health information: Comparisons in the domain of health attitudes, health cognitions, and health behaviors. Health Communication, 16, 273–288. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327027HC1603_1

16.

Eagly

Chaiken

(1993). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt Brace and Jovanovich.

17.

Enders

C. K.

(2010). Applied missing data analysis. Guilford Press.

18.

Fishbein

Ajzen

(2010). Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. Psychology Press.

19.

Fruehwirth

J. C.

Biswas

Perreira

K. M.

(2021). The COVID-19 pandemic and mental health of first-year college students: Examining the effect of COVID-19 stressors using longitudinal data. PLOS ONE, 16(3), Article e0247999. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247999

20.

Griffin

R. J.

Dunwoody

Neuwirth

(1999). Proposed model of the relationship of risk information seeking and processing to the development of preventive behaviors. Environmental Research, 80, 230–245. https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1998.3940

21.

Griffin

R. J.

Dunwoody

Yang

Z. J.

(2013). Linking risk messages to information seeking and processing. Annals of the International Communication Association, 36(1), 323–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2013.11679138

22.

Griffin

R. J.

Neuwirth

Dunwoody

Giese

(2004). Information sufficiency and risk communication. Media Psychology, 6, 23–61. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532785xmep0601_2

23.

Griffin

R. J.

Yang

ter Huurne

Boerner

Ortiz

Dunwoody

(2008). After the flood, and the seeking of information. Science Communication, 29, 285–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547007312309

24.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

25.

Hubner

A. Y.

Hovick

S. R.

(2020). Understanding risk information seeking and processing during an infectious disease outbreak: The case of Zika virus. Risk Analysis, 40, 1212–1225.

26.

Innes

Steinbach

(2021). State-operated vaccine cites open for Arizonans 16 and older. https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/arizona-health/2021/03/22/arizona-opening-up-state-operated-sites-coronavirus-vaccines-16-and-older/4802159001/

27.

Johns Hopkins University. (2021). COVID-19 dashboard by the Centers for Systems Science and Engineering (CCSE) at Johns Hopkins University (JHU). https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html

28.

Johnson

J. D.

Meischke

(1993). A comprehensive model of cancer-related information seeking applied to magazines. Human Communication Research, 19(3), 343–367. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1993.tb00305.x

29.

Kahlor

(2007). An augmented risk information seeking model: The case of global warming. Media Psychology, 10, 414–435. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213260701532971

30.

Kahlor

(2010). PRISM: A planned risk information seeking model. Health Communication, 25, 345–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410231003775172

31.

Kahlor

Dunwoody

Griffin

R. J.

Neuwirth

(2006). Seeking and processing information about impersonal risk. Science Communication, 28, 163–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547006293916

32.

Kahlor

Olson

H. C.

Markman

A. B.

Wang

(2020). Avoiding trouble: Exploring environmental risk information avoidance intentions. Environment and Behavior, 52, 187–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518799149

33.

Kline

R. B.

(2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford Press.

34.

Zheng

(2020). Online informationseeking and disease prevention intent during COVID-19 Outbreak. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699020961518

35.

(2015). Burgers or tofu? Eating between two worlds: Risk information seeking and processing during dietary acculturation. Health Communication, 30, 758–771. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.899658

36.

McEachan

Conner

Taylor

N. J.

Lawton

R. J.

(2011). Prospective prediction of health-related behaviours with the Theory of Planned Behaviour: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5, 97–144. DOI: 10.1080/17437199.2010.521684

37.

McEachan

Taylor

Harrison

Lawton

Gardner

Conner

(2016). Meta-analysis of the reasoned action approach (RAA) to understanding health behaviors. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 50, 592–612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-016-9798-4

38.

Monod

Blenkinsop

Hebert

Bershan

Tietze

Baguelin

Bradley

V. C.

Chen

Coupland

Filippi

Ish-Horowicz

McManus

Mellan

Gandy

Hutchinson

Unwin

H. J. T.

van Elsland

S. L.

Vollmer

M. A. C.

, . . . Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team. (2021). Age groups that sustain resurging COVID-19 epidemics in the United States. Science, 371(6536), eabe8372. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abe8372

39.

Neuwirth

Dunwoody

Griffin

R. J.

(2000). Protection motivation and risk communication. Risk Analysis, 20, 721–734.

40.

Pokrywczynski

Griffin

R. J.

Calhoun

G. J.

(2019). Information seeking among women aged 18 to 25 about the risk of sexual aggression. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 96, 239–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699018801315

41.

Rich

Brandes

Mullan

Hagger

M. S.

(2015). Theory of planned behavior and adherence in chronic illness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 38, 673–688. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-015-9644-3

42.

Roberto

A. J.

(2022). Public health communication: Science and practice. Kendall Hunt.

43.

Roberto

A. J.

Zhou

A. H.

(2021). The Effects of Perceived Threat and Efficacy on College Students’ Social Distancing Behavior during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Health Communication, 26(4), 264–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2021.1903628

44.

Rosseel

(2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling and more. Version 0. 5-12(BETA). Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36.

45.

RStudio Team. (2020). RStudio: Integrated development environment for R. RStudio. PBC. http://www.rstudio.com/

46.

Ryerson

N. C.

Wilson

O. W.

Pena

Duffy

Bopp

(2021). What happens when the party moves home? The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on US college student alcohol consumption as a function of legal drinking status using longitudinal data. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 11, 772–774.

47.

Schnell

Bachteler

Reiher

(2010). Improving the use of self-generated identification codes. Evaluation Review, 34, 391–418.

48.

Schreiber

J. B.

Nora

Stage

F. K.

Barlow

E. A.

King

(2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.3200/joer.99.6.323-338

49.

Sheeran

Harris

P. R.

Epton

(2014). Does heightening risk appraisals change people’s intentions and behavior? A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 511–543. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033065

50.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2021). Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. Retrieved https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/pfizer-biontech-covid-19-vaccine#additional

51.

Witte

(1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59, 329–349.

52.

Witte

(1994). Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM). Communications Monographs, 61, 113–134.

53.

Yang

Z. J.

(2012). Too scared or too capable? Why do college students stay away from the H1N1 vaccine? Risk Analysis: An International Journal, 32, 1703–1716. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2012.01799.x

54.

Yang

Z. J.

Aloe

A. M.

Feely

T. H.

(2014). Risk information seeking and processing model: A meta-analysis. Journal of Communication, 64, 20–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12071

55.

Yang

Z. J.

Kahlor

(2013). What, me worry? The role of affect in information seeking and avoidance. Science Communication, 35, 189–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547012441873

56.

Zhou

Roberto

A. J.

A. H.

(2021). Understanding online health risk information seeking and avoiding during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health Communication. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1958981

57.

Zimmermann

Bledsoe

Papa

(2021). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on college student mental health: A longitudinal examination of risk and protective factors. Psychiatry Research, 305, 114254.