This article is Part II of a review of the neuronal circuits, neural mechanisms, and neuromodulators that seem to be involved in anxiety and fear states. Part I focused on the specific brain structures, including the roles of the amygdala, locus coeruleus, hippocampus, and various cortical regions and the neural mechanisms of fear conditioning, extinction, and behavioral sensitization in mediating the signs and symptoms of anxiety and fear. Part II attempts to develop a better understanding of neurochemical mediation of traumatic remembrance and the neurobiological consequences of stress, particularly when experienced early in life. Finally, the data is synthesized to provide a basis for understanding the pathophysiology of anxiety disorders, such as Panic disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. NEUROSCIENTIST 4:122–132, 1998
McGaughJLInvolvement of hormonal and neuromodulatory systems in the regulation of memory storage. Annu Rev Neurosci1989; 2:255–287.
2.
McGaughJLSignificance and remembrance: The role of neuromodulatory systems. Psychol Sci1990; 1:15–25.
3.
GoldPEVanBuskirkRBEffects of alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptor antagonists on posttrial epinephrine modulation of memory: Relationship to posttraining brain norepinephrine concentrations. Behav Biol1978; 24:1168–1184.
4.
Introini-CollisonIBMcGaughJLEpinephrine modulates long-term retention of an aversively motivated discrimination task. Behav Neural Biol1986; 45:358–365.
5.
RoozendaalBMcGaughJLBasolateral amygdala lesions block the memory enhancing effects of glucocorticoid administration in the dorsal hippocampus (abstract). Neurosci Abstr1996; 22: 1869.
6.
DevangesVSaraSJMemory retrieval enhancement by locus coeruleus stimulation: Evidence for mediation by β-receptors. Behav Brain Res1991; 43:93–97.
7.
SaraSJDevangesV.Idazoxan, an α2 antagonist, facilitates memory retrieval in the rat. Behav Neural Biol1989; 51:401–411.
8.
RoozendaalBCarmiOMcGaughJLAdrenocortical suppression of the memory enhancing effects of amphetamine and epinephrine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A1996; 93:1429–1433.
9.
QuirarteGLRoozendaalBMcGaughJLGlucocorticoid induced memory modulation depends upon noradrenergic neurotransmission in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (abstract). Neurosci Abstr1996; 22: 2869.
10.
SouthwickSMKrystalJHMorganCA, et al. Abnormal noradrenergic function in post traumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatr1993; 50:266–274.
NakancHShimizuHHoriT.Stress induced NE increase in the rat prefrontal cortex measured by microdialysis. Am J Physiol1994; 167: R1559–R1560.
13.
RedmondDEJr.Studies of the nucleus locus coeruleus in monkeys and hypotheses for neuropsychopharmacology. In: MeltzerHY, editor. Psychopharmacology: the third generation of progress.New York: Raven; 1987. p. 967–975.
14.
AbercrombieEDJacobsBLSingle-unit response of noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus of freely moving cats. I: Acutely presented stressful and nonstressful stimuli. J Neurosci1987; 7:2837–2843.
15.
FooteSLBloomFEAston-JonesG.Nucleus locus coeruleus: New evidence for anatomical and physiological specificity. Physiol Rev1983; 63:844–914.
16.
LevineESLittoWJJacobsBLActivity of cat locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurons during the defense reaction. Brain Res1990; 531:189–195.
17.
SimsonPEWeissJMAltered activity of the locus coeruleus in an animal model of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology1988: 1:287–295.
18.
SimsonPEWeissJMResponsiveness of locus coeruleus neurons to excitatory stimulation is uniquely regulated by alpha-2 receptors. Psychopharmacol Bull1988; 24:349–354.
19.
TordaTKvetnanskyRPetrikovaM.Effect of repeated immobilization stress on rat central and peripheral adrenoceptors. In: UsdinEKvetnanskyRAxelrodJ, editors. Stress: the role of catecholamines and other neurotransmitters.New York: Gordon #38;#38; Breach; 1984. p. 691–701.
20.
AbercrombieNisenbaum LK Ed. Presynaptic alterations associated with enhancement of evoked release and synthesis of NE in hippocampus of chemically cold stressed rats. Brain Res1993; 608:280–287.
21.
CharneyDSHeningerGRBreierA.Noradrenergic function in panic anxiety: Effects of yohimbine in healthy subjects and patients with agoraphobia and panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatr1984; 41:751–763.
22.
CharneyDSWoodsSWGoodmanWKHeningerGRNeurobiological mechanisms of panic anxiety: Biochemical and behavioral correlates of yohimbine-induced panic attacks. Am J Psychiatr1987; 144:1030–1036.
23.
GreenBLGraceMCLindyJPGleserGCLeonardA.Risk factors for PTSD and other diagnoses in a general sample of Vietnam veterans. Am J Psychiatr1990; 147:729–733.
24.
ShiraoITsudaAYoshisshigeI, et al. Effect of acute ethanol administration on noradrenaline metabolism in brain regions of stressed and nonstressed rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav1988; 30:769–773.
25.
TanakaMKohnoyTsuda A, et al. Differential effects of morphine on noradrenaline release in brain regions of stressed and non-stressed rats. Brain Res1983; 275:105–115.
26.
IdaYTanakaMTsudaATsujimaruSNagasakiN.Attenuating effect of diazepam on stress-induced increases in noradrenaline turnover in specific brain regions of rats: Antagonism by Ro 15-1788. Life Sci1985; 37:2491–2498.
27.
MalloyPFFairbankJAKeaneTMValidation of a multimethod assessment of post-traumatic stress disorders in Vietnam veterans. J Consul Clin Psychol1983; 51:488–494.
28.
PitmanRKOrrSPForgueDFDeJongJBClaibornJMPsychophysiologic assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam combat veterans. Arch Gen Psychiatr1987; 44:970–975.
29.
McFallMFMurburgMMKoGMVeithRCAutonomic responses to stress in Vietnam veterans with post traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychol1990; 27:1165–1175.
30.
Aston-JonesGShipleyMTChouvetG, et al. Afferent regulation of locus coeruleus neurons: Anatomy, physiology and pharmacology. Prog Brain Res1991; 88:47–75.
31.
KrystalJHKostenTRPerryBDSouthwickSMasonJWGillerELNeurobiological aspects of PTSD: Review of clinical and preclinical studies. Behav Ther1989; 20:177–198.
32.
PerryBDGillerELSouthwickSMAltered platelet alpha2 adrenergic binding sites in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatr1987; 144:1511–1512.
33.
SouthwickSMKrystalJHBremnerJD, et al. Noradrenergic and serotonergic function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatr1997; 54:749–758.
34.
BremnerJDInnisRBNgCK, et al. PET Measurement of central metabolic correlates of yohimbine administration in post-traumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatr1997; 54:246–254.
35.
GurguisGNUhdeTWPlasma MHPG and growth hormone responses to yohimbine in panic disorder patients and normal controls. Psychoneuroendocrinology1990; 15:217–224.
36.
CharneyDSWoodsSWKrystalJHNagyLMHeningerGRNoradrenergic neuronal dysregulation in panic disorder: The effects of intravenous yohimbine and clonidine in panic disorder patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand1992; 86:273–282.
37.
UhdeTWMurrayMBVittoneBJ, et al. Behavioral and physiological effects of short-term and long-term administration of clonidine in panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatr1989; 46:170–177.
38.
NuttDJAltered α2-adrenoceptor sensitivity in panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatr1989; 46:165–169.
39.
CoplanJDPineDPappL, et al. Uncoupling of the noradrenergic-hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis in panic disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology1995; 13:65–73.
40.
ChalmersDTLovenbergTWGrigoriadisDEBehanDPDeSanzaEBCorticotropin-releasing factor receptors: From molecular biology to drug design. Trends Pharmacol Sci1996; 17:166–172.
41.
ChappellPBSmithMAKittsCD, et al. Alterations in corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in discrete rat brain regions after acute and chronic stress. J Neurosci1986; 6:2908–2914.
42.
SwansonLWSawchenkoPEHypothalamic integration: Organization of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Ann Rev Neuro1983: 6:269–234.
43.
HeiligMKoobGFEkmanRBrittonKTCorticotropin-releasing factor and neuropeptide Y: Role in emotional integration. Trends Neuro Sci1994; 17:80–85.
44.
LiangKCMeliaKRMiserendinoMJDFallsWACampeauSDavisM.Corticotropin-releasing factor: Long-lasting facilitation of the acoustic startle reflex. J Neurosci1992; 12:2303–2312.
45.
SwerdlowNRGeyerMAValeWWKoobGFCortico-releasing factor potentiates acoustic startle response in rats: Blockade by chlordiazepide. Psychopharmacol1986; 88:147–152.
46.
SwerdlowNRBrittonKTKoobGFPotentiation of acoustic startle by cortico-releasing factor (CRF) and by fear are both reversed by alpha-helical CRF(9-41). Neuropsychopharmacol1989; 2:285–292.
47.
BerridgeCWDunnAJA corticotropin-releasing factor antagonist reverses the stress-induced changes of exploratory behavior in mice. Horm Behav1987; 21:393–401.
48.
SkutellaTMontkowskiAStohrT, et al. CRH antisense oligodeoxynucleotide treatment attenuates social defeat anxiety in rats. Mol Cell Neurobiol1994; 14:579–588.
49.
PichEMLorangMYeganehM, et al. Increase of extracellular corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity levels in the amygdala of awake rats during restraint stress and ethanol with-drawal as measured by microdialysis. J Neurosci1995: 15:5439–5447.
50.
LiangKLeeE.Intra-amygdala injections of corticotropin releasing factor facilitate inhibitory avoidance learning and reduce exploratory behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl)1988; 96:232–236.
51.
LiebschGLandgrafPGerstbergerR, et al. Chronic infusion of a CRF1 receptor antisense oligodeoxynucleotide into the central nucleus of the amygdala reduced anxiety in socially defeated rats. Regul Peptides1995; 59:229–239.
52.
HenkePGThe bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and immobilization stress: Unit activity, escape behavior, and gastric pathology in rats. Behav Brain Res1984; 11:35–45.
53.
CasadaJHDafnyN.Evidence for two different afferent pathways carrying stress-related information (noxious and amygdala stimulation) to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Brain Res1992; 579:93–98.
54.
SawchenkoPESwansonLWThe organization of forebrain afferents to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the rat. J Comp Neurol1983; 218:121–144.
55.
LeeYDavisM.The role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in CRH enhanced startle: An animal model of anxiety (abstract). Neurosci Abstr1996; 22: 465.
56.
ValentinoRJFooteSLPageMEThe locus coeruleus as a site for integrating corticotropin-releasing factor and noradrenergic mediation of the stress response. Ann NY Acad Sci1993; 697:173–188.
57.
WeissJStoutJAaronMOwensMNemeroffC.Experimental studies of depression and anxiety: Role of locus coeruleus and corticotropin-releasing factor. Brain Res Bull1995; 35:561–572.
58.
ButlerPWeissJStoutJNemeroffC.Corticotropin-releasing factor produces fear-enhancing and behavioral activating effects following infusion into the locus coeruleus. J Neurosci1990; 10:176–183.
59.
SmaginGNSwiergielAHDunnAJCorticotropin-releasing factor administered into the locus coeruleus, but not the parabrachial nucleus, stimulates norepinephrine release in the prefrontal cortex. Brain Res Bull1995; 36:71–76.
60.
ValentinoRFooteS.Corticotropin-releasing hormone increases tonic but not sensory-evoked activity of noradrenergic locus coeruleus neurons in unanesthetized rats. J Neurosci1988; 8:1016–1025.
61.
AbercrombiePage ME Ed. Analysis of discharge, characteristics of locus coeruleus, neurons during activation by diverse neurochemical inputs (abstract). Neurosci Abstr1996; 22: 600.
62.
CurtisALFlorin-LechnerSMPavcovichLAValentinoRJCRF microinfusion into the LC: Effects on discharge rate, cortical NE levels and cortical EEG activity (abstract). Neurosci Abstr1996; 22: 1554.
63.
SmaginGNZhouJHarrisRPSRyanDHCRF antagonist infused into the LC attenuates immobilization stress induced increase of NE in the prefrontal cortex (abstract). Neurosci Abstr1996; 22: 464.
64.
McEwenBSDeKloetERRosteneW.Adrenal steroid receptors and actions in the nervous system. Physiol Rev1986; 66:1121–1188.
65.
SapolskyRMPlotskyPMHypercortisolism and its possible neural bases. Biol Psychiatr1990; 27:937–952.
66.
SongL-N.Stress-induced changes in glucorticoid receptors: Molecular mechanisms and clinical implications. Mol Cell Endocrinol1991; 80: C171–C174.
67.
SapolskyRKreyLMcEwenBSGlucorticoid-sensitive hippocampal neurons are involved in terminating the adrenocortical stress response. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A1984; 81:6174–6178.
68.
SapolskyRKreyLMcEwenBSStress downregulates corti-costerone receptors in a site specific manner in the brain. Endocrinology1984; 114:287–293.
69.
KantGJEgglestonTLandman-RobertsLKenionCCDriverGCMeyerhoffJLHabituation to repeated stress in stressor specific. Pharmacol Biochem Behav1985; 22:631–634.
70.
KantGJLeuJRAndersonSMMougeyEHEffects of chronic stress on plasma corticosterone, ACTH and prolactin. Physiol Behav1987; 40:775–779.
71.
IrwinJAhluwaliaPZacharkoRMAnismanH.Central norepinephrine and plasma corticosterone following acute and chronic stressors: Influence of social isolation and handling. Pharmacol Biochem Behav1986; 24:1151–1154.
72.
HennessyMBLevineS.Sensitive pituitary-adrenal responsiveness to varying intensities of psychological stimulation. Physiol Behav1978; 21:295–297.
73.
ArmarioARestrepoCCastellanosJMBaslaschJ.Dissociation between adrenocorticotropin and corticosterone responses to restraint stress after previous exposure to stress. Life Sci1985; 37:2085–2092.
74.
GamalloAVillannaATrandroGFraileA.Stress adaptation and adrenal activity in isolated and crowded rat. Physiol Behav1989; 26:829–841.
75.
OttenwellerATNatelsonBHPitmanDLDrestalSDAdrenocortical and behavioral responses to repeated stressors: Toward an animal model of chronic stress and stress-related mental illness. Biol Behav1986; 36:217–221.
76.
CaggiulaARAntelmanSMAulEKnopfSEdwardsDJPrior stress attenuates the analgesic response but sensitizes the corticosterone and cortical dopamine responses to stress 10 days later. Psychopharmacology1989; 99:233–237.
77.
YehudaRGillerELSouthwickSMLawryMTMasonJWHypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal dysfunction in post traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatr1991; 30:1031–1048.
78.
PacakKPalkovitsMKvetnanskyR, et al. Catecholamine inhibition by hypercortisolemic on the PVN of conscious rats. Endocrinology1995; 136:4814–4819.
79.
PacakKPalkovitsMKopinIJGoldsteinDJStress induced NE release in the hypothalamic PVN and pituitary-adrenal and sympathodrenal activity: In vivo microdialysis studies. Frontiers Neuroendocrinol1995; 16:89–150.
80.
VetrugnoGCLachuerJPeregoCMirandaEDeSimonsMGTappazM.Lack of glucocorticoids sustains the stress induced release of noradrenaline in the anterior hypothalamus. Neuroendocrinology1993; 57:835–842.
81.
KvetnanskyRFukuharaKPacakKCizzaGGoldsteinDJKopinIJEndogenous GC restrain catecholamine synthesis and release at rest and during immobilization stress in rats. Endocrinology1993; 133:1411–1419.
82.
PacakKKvetnanskyRPalkovitsM, et al. Adrenalectory augments in vivo release of NE in the PVN during stress. Endocrinology1993; 133:1404–1410.
83.
KomesaroffPAFunderJWDifferential glucocorticoid effects on catecholamine responses to stress. Am J Physiol1994: 266: E118–E128.
84.
PacakKArmandoIKomolyS.Hypercortisolemia inhibits yohimbine-induced release of norepinephrine in the posterolateral hypothalamus. Endocrinology1991; 131:1369–1376.
85.
LendersJWMGolczynskaAGoldsteinDSGlucocorticoids, sympathetic activity and presynaptic alpha-2 adrenoceptor function in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab1995; 80:1804–1808.
86.
BremnerJDLicinioJDarnellA, et al. Elevated CSF corticotropin releasing factor concentrations in PTSD. Am J Psychiatr1997; 154:624–629.
87.
SmithMADavidsonJRitchieJC, et al. The corticotropin-releasing hormone test in patients with PTSD. Biol Psychiatr1989; 26:349–355.
88.
YehudaRGillerELLevengoodRASouthwickSMSieverLJHypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal functioning in PTSD. In: FriedmanMJCharneyDSDeutchAY, editors. Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress.Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 1995. p. 351–365.
89.
JolkkonenJLepolaVBissetteGNemeroffCRiekkinenP.CSF corticotropin-releasing factor is not affected in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatr1993; 33:136–138.
90.
Roy-ByrnePPUhdeTWPostRMGallucciWChrousosGPGoldPWThe corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test in patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatr1986: 143:896–899.
91.
HolsboerFVonBardelebenUBullerRHeuserISteigerA.Stimulation response to corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in patients with depression, alcoholism and panic disorder. Horm Metab Res1987; 16(suppl):80–88.
92.
BrambillaFBellodiLPernaG, et al. Psychoimmunoendocrine aspects of panic disorder. Neuropsychobiology1992: 26:12–22.
93.
RapaportMHRischSCGolshanSGillinJCNeuroendocrine effects of ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone in panic disorder patients. Biol Psychiatr1989; 26:344–348.
94.
CoryellWNoyesR.HPA axis disturbance and treatment outcome in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatr1988; 24:762–766.
95.
KatholRGAntonRNoyesRLopezALReichJHRelationship of urinary free cortisol levels in patients with panic disorder to symptoms of depression and agoraphobia. Psychiatr Res1988; 24:211–221.
96.
UhdeTJoffeRTJimersonDCPostRMNormal urinary free cortisol and plasma MHPG in panic disorder: Clinical and theoretical implications. Biol Psychiatr1988; 23:575–585.
97.
GoldsteinSHalbreichUAsnisGEndicottJAlvirJ.The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system in panic disorder. Am J Psychiatr1987; 144:1320–1323.
98.
AbelsonJLCurtisGCHypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis activity in panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatr1996; 53:323–331.
99.
LaddCOOwensMJNemeroffCBPersistent changes in CRF neuronal systems produced by maternal separation. Endocrinology1996; 137:1212–1218.
100.
PlotskyPMMeaneyMJEarly postnatal experience alters hypothalamic corticotropin releasing factor in RNA, median eminence CRF content and stress-induced release in adult rats. Mol Brain Res1993; 18:195–200.
101.
RosenblumLACoplanJDFriedmanSBassofTGormanJMAndrewsMWAdverse early experience affect noradrenergic and serotonergic functioning in adult primates. Biol Psychiatr1994; 35:221–227.
102.
CoplanJDAndreasMWRosenblumLA, et al. Persistent elevations of CSF CRF in adult nonhuman primates exposed to early life stressors: Implications for the pathophysiology of mood and anxiety disorders. Proc Nat Acad Sci U S A1996; 93:1619–1623.
103.
BremnerJDSouthwickSMJohnsonDRYehudaRCharneyDSChildhood physical abuse in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatr1993; 150:235–239.
104.
PerryBDNeurobiological sequelae of childhood trauma: PTSD in children. In: MurburgMM, editor. Catecholamine function in posttraumatic stress disorder: emerging concepts.Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Press; 1994. p. 233–256.
105.
LemieuxAMCoeCLAbuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for chronic neuroendocrine activation in women. Psychosom Med1995; 57:105–115.
ViduVSharmaSPlotskyPMeaneyMJThe hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal system response to stress in handled and non-handled rats; differences in stress induced plasma ACTH secretion are not dependent upon corticosterone levels. J Neurosci1993; 13:1097–1105.
108.
CaldjiCSharmaSPlotskyPMMeaneyMJPostnatal handling/maternal separation alters responses to novelty stress, open field exploration and central benzodiazepine receptor levels in adult rats (abstract). Neurosci Abstr1996; 22: 1341.
109.
UnoHTararaEElseJGSulemanMASapolskyRMHippocampal damage associated with prolonged and fatal stress in primates. J Neurosci1989; 9:1705–1711.
110.
SapolskyRMUnoHRebertCSFinchCEHippocampal damage associated with prolonged glucocorticoid exposure in primates. J Neurosci1990; 10:2897–2902.
111.
LawrenceMSSapolskyRMGlucorticoids accelerate ATP loss following metabolic insults in cultured hippocampal neurons. Brain Res1994: 646:303–306.
112.
VirginCETarynPTHPackanDRGlucocorticoids inhibit glucose transport and glutamate uptake in hippocampal astrocytes: Implications for glucocorticoid neurotoxicity. J Neurochem1991; 57:1422–1428.
113.
MagarinosAMMcEwenBSStress induced atrophy of apical dendrites of hippocampal CA3C neurons: Involvement of GC secretion and excitatory amino acid receptors. Neuroscience1995: 69:89–98.
114.
MagarinosAMMcEwenBSStress induced atrophy of apical dendrites of hippocampal CA3C neurons comparison of stressors. Neuroscience1995; 69:83–88.
115.
Stein-BehrensBALinWJSapolskyRMPhysiological elevations of glucocorticoids potentiate glutamate accumulation in the hippocampus. J Neurochem1994; 63:596–602.
116.
MagarinosAMVerdugoJMMcEwenBSChronic restraint stress causes ultrastructural changes in rat mossy fiber terminals (abstract). Neuroscience Abstr1996; 22: 1196.
MeaneyMAitkenDBhatnagerSVan BerkelCSapolskyR.Effect of neonatal handling on age-related impairments associated with the hippocampus. Science1988; 239:766–769.
119.
ArbelIKadarTSilbermanMLevyA.The effects of long-term corticosterone administration on hippocampal morphology and cognitive performance of middle-aged rats. Brain Res1994; 657:227–235.
UnoHLohmillerLThiemeC, et al. Brain damage induced by prenatal exposure to dexamethasone in fetal rhesus macaques 1 hippocampus. Dev Brain Res1990; 53:157–167.
122.
BremnerJDRandallPScottTM, et al. MR1-based measurement of hippoampal volume in combat related posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatr1995; 152:973–981.
123.
BremnerJDRandallPVermettenE, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood physical and sexual abuse-A preliminary report. Biol Psychiatr1997: 41:23–32.
124.
GurvitsTVShentonMEHokamaH, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging study of hippocampal volume in chronic, combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatr1996: 40:1091–1099.
125.
SutkerPBWinsteadDKGalinaZHAllainANCognitive deficits and psychopathology among former prisoners of war and combat veterans of the Korean conflict. Am J Psychiatr1991; 148:67–72.
126.
BremnerJDScottTMDelaneyRCCharneyDSDeficits in short-term memory in post-traumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatr1993; 150:1015–1019.
127.
UddoMVasterlingJTBraileyKSutkerPBMemory and attention in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychopath Behav Assess1993; 15:43–52.
128.
YehudaRKeeferRSEHarveyPDLearning and memory in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatr1995: 152:137–139.
129.
BremnerJDRandallPRCapelliSScottTMcCarthyGCharneyDSDeficits in short-term memory in adult survivors of childhood abuse. Psychiatr Res1995; 59:97–107.
