The lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) community includes a diverse set of groups, including distinct groups based on sexual orientation and/or gender identity, but it is not clear whether the public makes distinctions in their attitudes toward these subgroups. If they do, what factors motivate individuals to evaluate gays and lesbians differently from transgender people? This study analyzes Americans’ attitudes toward these communities, and it evaluates their support for nondiscrimination protections. We find that public attitudes are significantly more negative toward transgender people and policies pertaining to them than they are toward gay men and lesbians and related policies. The analyses reveal that differences in these attitudes are associated with social contact effects, variation in cognitive consistency, elite cues, and the varying magnitudes of key political factors, such as religiosity and partisanship.
AllportGordon W.1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge: Addison-Wesley.
2.
BarthJay L.OverbyMarvinHuffmonScott H.2009. “Community Context, Personal Contact, and Support for an Anti-gay Rights Referendum.” Political Research Quarterly62 (2): 355–65.
3.
BaunachDawn Michelle. 2012. “Changing Same-Sex Marriage Attitudes in America from 1988 through 2010.” Public Opinion Quarterly76 (2): 364–78.
4.
BramlettBrittany H.2012. “The Cross-Pressures of Religion and Contact with Gays and Lesbians, and Their Impact on Same-Sex Marriage Opinion.” Politics & Policy40:13–42.
5.
BrewerPaul R.2003. “The Shifting Foundations of Public Opinion about Gay Rights.” The Journal of Politics65 (4): 1208–20.
BucarElizabeth M.2010. “Bodies at the Margins: The Case of Transsexuality in Catholic and Shia Ethics.” Journal of Religious Ethics38 (4): 601–15.
8.
BullockJohn G.2011. “Elite Influence on Public Opinion in an Informed Electorate.” American Political Science Review105 (3): 496–515.
9.
CampbellAngusConversePhilip E.MillerWarren E.StokesDonald E.1960. The American Voter. New York: Wiley.
10.
CarpenterChristopher. 2013. “The Prevalence of Gay Men and Lesbians.” In International Handbook on the Demography of Sexuality, edited by BaumeAmanda K., 217–28. New York: Springer.
11.
CohenGeoffrey L.2003. “Party over Policy: The Dominating Impact of Group Influence on Political Beliefs.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology85:808–22.
12.
ConversePhilip E.1964. “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics.” In Ideology and Discontent, edited by ApterDavid E., 206–61. New York: Free Press of Glencoe.
13.
DruckmanJames N.PetersonErikSlothuusRune. 2013. “How Elite Partisan Polarization Affects Public Opinion Formation.” American Political Science Review107 (1): 57–79.
14.
DyckJoshua J.Pearson-MerkowitzShanna. 2014. “To Know You Is Not Necessarily to Love You: The Partisan Mediators of Intergroup Contact.” Political Behavior36 (3): 553–80.
15.
FloresAndrew R.2014. “Reexamining Context and Same-Sex Marriage: The Effect of Demography on Public Support for Same-Sex Relationship Recognition.” International Journal of Public Opinion Research26 (3): 283–300.
16.
FloresAndrew R.2015. “Attitudes toward Transgender Rights: Perceived Knowledge and Secondary Interpersonal Contact.” Politics, Groups, and Identities3 (3): 398–416.
17.
FloresAndrew R.BarclayScott. 2016. “Backlash, Consensus, Legitimacy, or Polarization: The Effect of Same-Sex Marriage Policy on Mass Attitudes.” Political Research Quarterly69 (1): 43–56.
18.
FloresAndrew R.HermanJody L.GatesGary J.BrownTaylor N. T.2016. How Many Adults Identify as Transgender in the United States?Los Angeles: The Williams Institute.
GarnerAndrew. 2013. “Ambivalence, the Intergroup Contact Hypothesis, and Attitudes about Gay Rights.” Politics & Policy41 (2): 241–66.
21.
GarretsonJeremiah J.2014. “Changing with the Times: The Spillover Effects of Same-Sex Marriage Ballot Measures on Presidential Elections.” Political Research Quarterly67 (2): 280–92.
22.
GarretsonJeremiah J.2015. “Exposure to the Lives of Lesbians and Gays and the Origin of Young People’s Greater Support for Gay Rights.” International Journal of Public Opinion Research27 (2): 277–88.
23.
GorenPaul. 2004. “Political Sophistication and Policy Reasoning: A Reconsideration.” American Journal of Political Science48:462–78.
24.
GrantJaime M.MottetLisa A.TanisJustinHarrisonJackHermanJody L.KeislingMara. 2011. “Injustice at Every Turn: A Report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey.” National Center for Transgender Equality and the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, Washington, DC.
25.
HaeberleSteven H.1999. “Gay and Lesbian Rights: Emerging Trends in Public Opinion and Voting Behavior.” In Gays and Lesbians in the Democratic Process: Public Policy, Public Opinion, and Policy Representation, edited by RiggleEllen D. B.TadlockBarry L., 146–69. New York: Columbia University Press.
26.
Haider-MarkelDonald P.2010. Out and Running: Gay and Lesbian Candidates, Elections, and Policy Representation. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
27.
Haider-MarkelDonald P.JoslynMark R.2005. “Attributions and the Regulation of Marriage: Considering the Parallels between Race and Homosexuality.” Political Science & Politics38 (2): 233–39.
28.
Haider-MarkelDonald P.JoslynMark R.2008. “Understanding Beliefs about the Origins of Homosexuality and Subsequent Support for Gay Rights: An Empirical Test of Attribution Theory.” Public Opinion Quarterly72 (2): 291–310.
29.
Haider-MarkelDonald P.MeierKenneth J.1996. “The Politics of Gay and Lesbian Rights: Expanding the Scope of the Conflict.” The Journal of Politics58 (2): 332–49.
30.
HerekGregory M.2002. “Gender Gaps in Public Opinion about Lesbians and Gay Men.” Public Opinion Quarterly66 (1): 40–66.
31.
HerekGregory M.2009. “Hate Crimes and Stigma-Related Experiences among Sexual Minority Adults in the United States: Prevalence Estimates from a National Probability Sample.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence24 (1): 54–74.
32.
HerekGregory M.CapitanioJohn P.1996. “‘Some of My Best Friends’: Intergroup Contact, Concealable Stigma, and Heterosexuals’ Attitudes toward Gay Men and Lesbians.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin22:412–24.
33.
HerekGregory M.GluntEric K.1993. “Interpersonal Contact and Heterosexuals’ Attitudes toward Gay Men: Results from a National Survey.” The Journal of Sex Research30 (3): 239–44.
34.
IshakMohd Shuhaimi Bin HajiHaneefSayed Sikandar Shah. 2014. “Sex Reassignment Technology: The Dilemma of Transsexuals in Islam and Christianity.” Journal of Religion & Health53 (1): 520–37.
35.
JacobsLawrence R.ShapiroRobert Y.2000. Politicians Don’t Pander: Political Manipulation and the Loss of Democratic Responsiveness. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
36.
JenningsM. Kent. 1992. “Ideological Thinking among Mass Publics and Political Elites.” Public Opinion Quarterly56 (4): 419-41.
37.
JewittCaitlin E.GorenPaul. 2016. “Ideological Structure and Consistency in the Age of Polarization.” American Politics Research44 (1): 81–105.
38.
KingMar E.WinterSamWebsterBeverley. 2009. “Contact Reduces Transprejudice: A Study on Attitudes towards Transgenderism and Transgender Civil Rights in Hong Kong.” International Journal of Sexual Health21:17–34.
39.
KreitzerRebecca J.HamiltonAllison J.TolbertCaroline J.2014. “Does Policy Adoption Change Opinions on Minority Rights? The Effects of Legalizing Same-Sex Marriage.” Political Research Quarterly67 (4): 795–808.
40.
LaymanGeoffrey C.CarseyThomas M.2002. “Party Polarization and ‘Conflict Extension’ in the American Electorate.” American Journal of Political Science46 (4): 786–802.
41.
LewisGregory B.2003. “Black-White Differences in Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Gay Rights.” Public Opinion Quarterly67 (1): 59–78.
42.
LewisGregory B.2009. “Does Believing Homosexuality Is Innate Increase Support for Gay Rights?”Policy Studies Journal37 (4): 669–93.
43.
LewisGregory B.2011. “The Friends and Family Plan: Contact with Gays and Support for Gay Rights.” Policy Studies Journal39 (2): 217–38.
LuskinRobert C.1987. “Measuring Political Sophistication.” American Journal of Political Science31 (4): 856–99.
46.
MacKenzieGordene. 1994. Transgender Nation. Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.
47.
MansbridgeJane. 1999. “Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent ‘Yes.’” The Journal of Politics61 (3): 628–57.
48.
MeierStaceyLabuskiChristine. 2013. “The Demographics of the Transgender Population.” In International Handbook on the Demography of Sexuality, edited by BaumeAmanda K., 289–327. New York: Springer.
49.
NortonAaron T.HerekGregory M.2013. “Heterosexuals’ Attitudes toward Transgender People: Findings from a National Probability Sample of U.S. Adults.” Sex Roles68 (11): 738–53.
50.
OlsonLaura R.CadgeWendyHarrisonJames T.2006. “Religion and Public Opinion about Same-Sex Marriage.” Social Science Quarterly87 (2): 340–60.
51.
PeffleyMark A.HurwitzJon. 1985. “A Hierarchical Model of Attitude Constraint.” American Journal of Political Science29:871–90.
52.
PetersGerhard. 2017. “Political Party Platforms of Parties Receiving Electoral Votes.” The American Presidency Project. Edited by WoolleyJohn T.PetersGerhard. Santa Barbara: University of California. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/platforms.php (accessed June 10, 2017).
53.
PettigrewThomas F.TroppLinda R.2008. “How Does Intergroup Contact Reduce Prejudice? Meta-Analytic Tests of Three Mediators.” European Journal of Social Psychology38 (6): 922–34.
54.
PiercesonJason. 2016. Sexual Minorities and Politics: An Introduction. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
SkipworthSue AnnGarnerAndrewDettreyBryan J.2010. “Limitations of the Contact Hypothesis: Heterogeneity in the Contact Effect on Attitudes toward Gay Rights.” Politics & Policy38 (5): 887–906.
59.
SteinmetzKaty. 2014. “America’s Transition.” Time, June9, 38–46.
60.
TadlockBarry L.TaylorJami K.2017. “Where Has the Field Gone? An Investigation of LGBTQ Political Science Research.” In LGBTQ Politics: A Critical Reader, edited by BrettschneiderMarlaBurgessSusanKeatingCricket. New York: New York University Press.
61.
TadlockBarry L.TaylorJami K.FloresAndrew R.Haider-MarkelDonaldLewisDaniel C.MillerPatrick. Forthcoming. “Testing Contact Theory and Attitudes on Transgender Rights.” Public Opinion Quarterly.
62.
TaylorJamiHaider-MarkelDonald. 2014. Transgender Rights and Politics: Groups, Issue Framing, and Policy Adoption. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
63.
WilcoxClyde. 1990. “Religion and Politics among White Evangelicals: The Impact of Religious Variables on Political Attitudes.” Review of Religious Research32 (1): 27–42.
64.
WilcoxClydeSigelmanLeeCookElizabeth. 1989. “Some Like It Hot: Individual Differences in Responses to Group Feeling Thermometers.” Public Opinion Quarterly53 (2): 246–57.
65.
ZallerJohn. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
66.
ZellnerArnoldTheilHenri. 1962. “Three-Stage Least Squares: Simultaneous Estimation of Simultaneous Equations.” Econometrica30 (1): 54–78.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
