Stroke is a neurological alteration which significantly impacts patient's functional abilities and quality of life. Physiotherapy interventions, including therapeutic exercise, robotic therapy, electrotherapy and hydrotherapy, have demonstrated positive effects in addressing the sequelae that persist in the chronic phase.
Methods
This systematic review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251102428). Searches were conducted in Cochrane, PubMed, PEDro, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Randomized controlled trials of physiotherapy interventions in chronic stroke were included if they reported outcomes for functionality and quality of life. Methodological quality was assessed using the PEDro scale. 35 articles met the inclusion criteria, of which 18 focused on therapeutic exercise, 8 on robotic therapy, 8 on electrotherapy, and 1 on hydrotherapy, comprising a total of 2,412 patients.
Results
Therapeutic exercise is the most extensively studied intervention in chronic stroke, consistently demonstrating the most favorable outcomes in functionality. Robotic therapy was the second modality showing improvements in functionality, particularly in gait, balance and hand function. Electrotherapy, along with robotic therapy showed the greatest impact on quality of life outcomes. Evidence for hydrotherapy remains limited, with a single trial reporting improvements in balance. Overall, these results suggest that no single physiotherapy modality is superior across all domains, emphasizing the need for a multimodal and individualized approach in chronic stroke rehabilitation.
Conclusion
Physiotherapy interventions in chronic stroke show clear benefits, with therapeutic exercise showing the greatest impact on functional recovery and electrotherapy and robotic therapy on quality of life.
AlessandroL.OlmosL.BonamicoL.MuzioD.AhumadaM.RussoM.AllegriR.GianellaM.CamporaH.DelormeR.VescovoM.LadoV.MastrobertiL.ButusA.GalluzziH.DécimaG.AmerisoS. (2020). Rehabilitación multidisciplinaria para pacientes adultos con accidente cerebrovascular. Medicina, 80(1), 54–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/pzaa197
2.
AmirbekovaM.KispayevaT.AdomavicieneA.EszhanovaL.BolshakovaI.OspanovaZ. (2025). Systematic review and meta-analysis of effectiveness of robotic therapy in the recovery of motor functions after stroke. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 19, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1622661
3.
BaeY. H.KoY. J.ChangW. H.LeeJ. H.LeeK. B.ParkY. J.HaH. G.KimY. H. (2014). Effects of robot-assisted gait training combined with functional electrical stimulation on recovery of locomotor mobility in chronic stroke patients: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 26(12), 1949–1953. https://doi.org/10.1589/jpts.26.1949
4.
BaoS. C.KhanA.SongR.Kai-yu TongR. (2020). Rewiring the lesioned brain: Electrical stimulation for post-stroke motor restoration. Journal of Stroke, 22(1), 47–63. https://doi.org/10.5853/jos.2019.03027
5.
Barros GalvãoS. C.Borba Costa Dos SantosR.Borba Dos SantosP.CabralM. E.Monte-SilvaK. (2014). Efficacy of coupling repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and physical therapy to reduce upper-limb spasticity in patients with stroke: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 95(2), 222–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2013.10.023
6.
BethouxF.RogersH. L.NolanK. J.AbramsG. M.AnnaswamyT. M.BrandstaterM.BrowneB.BurnfieldJ. M.FengW.FreedM. J.GeisC.GreenbergJ.GudesblattM.IkramuddinF.JayaramanA.KautzS. A.LutsepH. L.MadhavanS.MeilahnJ.PeaseW. S.KuftaC. (2014). The effects of peroneal nerve functional electrical stimulation versus ankle-foot orthosis in patients with chronic stroke: A randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 28(7), 688–697. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968314521007
7.
BoyneP.BillingerS. A.ReismanD. S.AwosikaO. O.BuckleyS.BursonJ.CarlD.DeLangeM.DorenS.EarnestM.GersonM.HenryM.HorningA.KhouryJ. C.KisselaB. M.LaughlinA.McCartneyK.McQuaidT.MillerA.DunningK. (2023). Optimal intensity and duration of walking rehabilitation in patients with chronic stroke: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurology, 80(4), 342–351. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2023.0033
8.
BrogårdhC.FlansbjerU. B.LexellJ. (2012). Self-reported walking ability in persons with chronic stroke and the relationship with gait performance tests. PM & R, 4(10), 734–738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmrj.2012.05.004
9.
BusijaL.PausenbergerE.HainesT. P.HaymesS.BuchbinderR.OsborneR. H. (2011). Adult measures of general health and health-related quality of life: Medical outcomes study short form 36-item (SF-36) and short form 12-item (SF-12) health surveys, Nottingham health profile (NHP), sickness impact profile (SIP), medical outcomes study short form 6D (SF-6D), health utilities Index mark 3 (HUI3), quality of well-being scale (QWB), and assessment of quality of life (AQOL). Arthritis Care & Research, 63(11), S383–S412. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.20541
10.
ChaH. G.ShinY. J.KimM. K. (2017). Effects of the bad ragaz ring method on muscle activation of the lower limbs and balance ability in chronic stroke: A randomised controlled trial. Hong Kong Physiotherapy Journal, 37(1), 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hkpj.2017.02.001
11.
ChangW. H.KimY. (2013). Robot-assisted therapy in stroke rehabilitation. Journal of Stroke, 15(3), 174–181. 10.5853/jos.2013.15.3.174 https://doi.org/10.5853/jos.2013.15.3.174
12.
ClarkB.WhitallJ.KwakkelG.MehrholzJ.EwingsS.BurridgeJ. (2021). The effect of time spent in rehabilitation on activity limitation and impairment after stroke. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 10(10), CD012612. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012612.pub2
13.
da CunhaM. J.PintoC.SchifinoG. P.Sant'Anna PyI.CimolinV.PagnussatA. S. (2022). Bicephalic transcranial direct-current stimulation does not add benefits to a footdrop stimulator for improving functional mobility in people with chronic hemiparesis after stroke: A double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Physical Therapy, 102(8), pzac079. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/pzac079
14.
da SilvaE. S. M.OcamotoG. N.Santos-MaiaG. L. D.de Fátima Carreira Moreira PadovezR.TrevisanC.de NoronhaM. A.PereiraN. D.BorstadA.RussoT. L. (2020). The effect of priming on outcomes of task-oriented training for the upper extremity in chronic stroke: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 34(6), 479–504. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968320912760
15.
DeeM.LennonO.O’SullivanC. (2020). A systematic review of physical rehabilitation interventions for stroke in low and lower-middle income countries. Disability and Rehabilitation, 42(4), 473–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2018.1501617
16.
De LucaR.MarescaG.BallettaT.CannavòA.LeonardiS.LatellaD.MaggioM. G.PortaroS.NaroA.CalabròR. S. (2020). Does overground robotic gait training improve non-motor outcomes in patients with chronic stroke? Findings from a pilot study. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, 81(70), 240–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2020.09.070
17.
DimyanM. A.CohenL. G. (2011). Neuroplasticity in the context of motor rehabilitation after stroke. Nature Reviews Neurology, 7(2), 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2010.200
18.
DuM.ChenL.LiY.XiaL.LiuY.GuoM.ZhangZ.WeiY.LiY. (2025). Effect of exercise-based interventions on stroke rehabilitation: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation, 22(1), 240. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12984-025-01781-y
19.
Elmas BodurB.ErdoğanoğluY.Asena SelS. (2024). Effects of robotic-assisted gait training on physical capacity, and quality of life among chronic stroke patients: A randomized controlled study. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, 120(10), 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2024.01.010
20.
GlobasC.BeckerC.CernyJ.LamJ. M.LindemannU.ForresterL. W.MackoR. F.LuftA. R. (2012). Chronic stroke survivors benefit from high-intensity aerobic treadmill exercise: A randomized control trial. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 26(1), 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968311418675
21.
GordonC. D.WilksR.McCaw-BinnsA. (2013). Effect of aerobic exercise (walking) training on functional status and health-related quality of life in chronic stroke survivors: A randomized controlled trial. Stroke, 44(4), 1179–1181. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.000642
22.
HachisukaK.OchiM.KikuchiT.SaekiS. (2021). Clinical effectiveness of peroneal nerve functional electrical stimulation in chronic stroke patients with hemiplegia (PLEASURE): A multicentre, prospective, randomised controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation, 35(3), 367–377. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215520966702
23.
HayesC. A.Valcarcel-AresM. N.AshpoleN. M. (2021). Preclinical and clinical evidence of IGF-1 as a prognostic marker and acute intervention with ischemic stroke. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 41(10), 2475–2491. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X211000894
24.
HegeA.BeleA. W.QureshiM. I.AgrawalA.ChoubisaC.DaffA. (2022). Common electrotherapy modalities used in physiotherapy setup in wardha district. Journal of Medical Pharmaceutical and Allied Sciences, 11(1), 264–267. https://jmpas.com/abstract/963
25.
HidlerJ.NicholsD.PelliccioM.BradyK.CampbellD. D.KahnJ. H.HornbyT. G. (2009). Multicenter randomized clinical trial evaluating the effectiveness of the lokomat in subacute stroke. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 23(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968308326632
26.
HornbyT. G.CampbellD. D.KahnJ. H.DemottT.MooreJ. L.RothH. R. (2008). Enhanced gait-related improvements after therapist- versus robotic-assisted locomotor training in subjects with chronic stroke: A randomized controlled study. Stroke, 39(6), 1786–1792. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.107.504779
27.
HungC. S.LinK. C.ChangW. Y.HuangW. C.ChangY. J.ChenC. L.Grace YaoK.LeeY. Y. (2019). Unilateral vs bilateral hybrid approaches for upper limb rehabilitation in chronic stroke: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 100(12), 2225–2232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2019.06.021
28.
JakobI.KollreiderA.GermanottaM.BenettiF.CrucianiA.PaduaL.AprileI. (2018). Robotic and sensor technology for upper limb rehabilitation. PM&R, 10(9), S189–S197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmrj.2018.07.011
29.
JiangL.DingH.MaQ.GaoS.ZhangX.ChunB. (2025). Comparing the effectiveness of different exercise interventions on quality of life in stroke patients: A randomized controlled network meta-analysis. BMC Neurology, 25(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-025-04035-5
30.
KarthikbabuS.ChakrapaniM.GanesanS.EllajosyulaR.SolomonJ. M. (2018). Efficacy of trunk regimes on balance, mobility, physical function, and community reintegration in chronic stroke: A parallel-group randomized trial. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association, 27(4), 1003–1011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2017.11.003
31.
KelleyC. P.ChildressJ.BoakeC.NoserE. A. (2013). Over-ground and robotic-assisted locomotor training in adults with chronic stroke: A blinded randomized clinical trial. Disability and Rehabilitation.Assistive Technology, 8(2), 161–168. https://doi.org/10.3109/17483107.2012.714052
32.
KimM.ChoK.LeeW. (2014). Community walking training program improves walking function and social participation in chronic stroke patients. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine, 234(4), 281–286. https://doi.org/10.1620/tjem.234.281
33.
KochG.BonnìS.CasulaE. P.IosaM.PaolucciS.PellicciariM. C.CinneraA. M.PonzoV.MaiellaM.PicazioS.SallustioF.CaltagironeC. (2019). Effect of cerebellar stimulation on gait and balance recovery in patients with hemiparetic stroke: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurology, 76(2), 170–178. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.3639
KwakkelG.KollenB. J.KrebsH. I. (2008). Effects of robot-assisted therapy on upper limb recovery after stroke: A systematic review. Neurorehabil Neural Repair, 22(2), 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968307305457
36.
LakshminarayanK.BergerA. K.FullerC. C.JacobsD. R.JrAndersonD. C.SteffenL. M.SillahA.LuepkerR. V. (2014). Trends in 10-year survival of patients with stroke hospitalized between 1980 and 2000: The Minnesota stroke survey. Stroke, 45(9), 2575–2581. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.005512
37.
LeeS. H.LeeJ. Y.KimM. Y.JeonY. J.KimS.ShinJ. H. (2018). Virtual reality rehabilitation with functional electrical stimulation improves upper extremity function in patients with chronic stroke: A pilot randomized controlled study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 99(8), 1447–1453.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2018.01.030
38.
LeeY.LinK.ChengH.WuC.HsiehY.ChenC. (2015). Effects of combining robot-assisted therapy with neuromuscular electrical stimulation on motor impairment, motor and daily function, and quality of life in patients with chronic stroke: A double-blinded randomized controlled trial. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation, 12(96), 93. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12984-015-0088-3
LiY.LinK.ChenC.YaoG.ChangY.-J.LeeY.LiuC. T.ChenW. S. (2023). Three ways to improve arm function in the chronic phase after stroke by robotic priming combined with mirror therapy, arm training, and movement-oriented therapy. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 104(8), 1195–1202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2023.02.015
42.
LimC. G. (2020). Effect of underwater treadmill gait training with water-jet resistance on balance and gait ability in patients with chronic stroke: A randomized controlled pilot trial. Frontiers in Neurology, 10, 1246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.01246
43.
LimaR. C. M.MichaelsenS. M.NascimentoL. R.PoleseJ. C.PereiraN. D.Teixeira-SalmelaL. F. (2014). Addition of trunk restraint to home-based modified constraint-induced movement therapy does not bring additional benefits in chronic stroke individuals with mild and moderate upper limb impairments: A pilot randomized controlled trial. NeuroRehabilitation, 35(3), 391–404. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-141130
44.
LinK.ChangY.WuC.ChenY. (2009). Effects of constraint-induced therapy versus bilateral arm training on motor performance, daily functions, and quality of life in stroke survivors. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 23(5), 441–448. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968308328719
45.
LiuT.NgG. Y. F.ChungR. C. K.NgS. S. M. (2019). Decreasing fear of falling in chronic stroke survivors through cognitive behavior therapy and task-oriented training. Stroke, 50(1), 148–154. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.118.022406
46.
LoA. C.GuarinoP. D.RichardsL. G.HaselkornJ. K.WittenbergG. F.FedermanD. G.RingerR. J.WagnerT. H.KrebsH. I.VolpeB. T.BeverC. T. J.BravataD. M.DuncanP. W.CornB. H.MaffucciA. D.NadeauS. E.ConroyS. S.PowellJ. M.HuangG. D.PeduzziP. (2010). Robot-assisted therapy for long-term upper-limb impairment after stroke. The New England Journal of Medicine, 362(19), 1772–1783. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0911341
47.
LuY.BuF.WangF.LiuL.ZhangS.WangG.HuX. (2023). Recent advances on the molecular mechanisms of exercise-induced improvements of cognitive dysfunction. Translational Neurodegeneration, 12(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40035-023-00341-5
48.
MaherC. G.SherringtonC.HerbertR. D.MoseleyA. M.ElkinsM. (2003). Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials. Physical Therapy, 83(8), 713–721. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/83.8.713
49.
MahmoodW.Ahmed BurqH. ,. S. I.EhsanS.SagheerB.MahmoodT. (2022). Effect of core stabilization exercises in addition to conventional therapy in improving trunk mobility, function, ambulation and quality of life in stroke patients: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 14(1), 62. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-022-00452-y
50.
ManningO. J.RancourtS.TomasoneJ. R.FinlaysonM.DePaulV. (2023). Water-based therapeutic exercise in stroke: A scoping review. Disability and Rehabilitation, 45(9), 1549–1562. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2022.2063415
51.
ManuliA.MaggioM. G.LatellaD.CannavòA.BallettaT.De LucaR.NaroA.CalabròR. S. (2020). Can robotic gait rehabilitation plus virtual reality affect cognitive and behavioural outcomes in patients with chronic stroke? A randomized controlled trial involving three different protocols. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases, 29(8), 104994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.104994
52.
MartinsJ. C.NadeauS.AguiarL. T.ScianniA. A.Teixeira-SalmelaL. F.De Morais FariaC. D. C. (2020). Efficacy of task-specific circuit training on physical activity levels and mobility of stroke patients: A randomized controlled trial. NeuroRehabilitation, 47(4), 451–462. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-203207
53.
MarzoA.BaiJ.OtaniS. (2009). Neuroplasticity regulation by noradrenaline in mammalian brain. Current Neuropharmacology, 7(4), 286–295. https://doi.org/10.2174/157015909790031193
54.
MuJ.MaL.ZhangZ.QianX.ZhangQ.MaL. H.SunT. Y. (2023). The factors affecting neurogenesis after stroke and the role of acupuncture. Frontiers in Neurology, 14, 1082625. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1082625
55.
MustafaogluR.ErhanB.YeldanI.GunduzB.TarakciE. (2020). Does robot-assisted gait training improve mobility, activities of daily living and quality of life in stroke? A single-blinded, randomized controlled trial. Acta Neurologica Belgica, 120(2), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13760-020-01276-8
56.
NayakP.MahmoodA.NatarajanM.HombaliA.PrashanthC. G.SolomonJ. M. (2020). Effect of aquatic therapy on balance and gait in stroke survivors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 39, 101110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2020.101110
57.
Niama NattaD. D.LejeuneT.DetrembleurC.YarouB.SogbossiE. S.AlagnidéE.KpadonouT.SelvesC.StoquartG. (2021). Effectiveness of a self-rehabilitation program to improve upper-extremity function after stroke in developing countries: A randomized controlled trial. Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, 64(1), 101413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rehab.2020.03.017
58.
NitscheM. A.KuoM.GroschJ.BergnerC.Monte-SilvaK.PaulusW. (2009). D1-receptor impact on neuroplasticity in humans. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29(8), 2648–2653. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5366-08.2009
59.
Noa PelierB.Vila GarcíaJ. (2019). Estimulación eléctrica funcional en el miembro superior de pacientes hemipléjicos después de sufrir una enfermedad cerebrovascular. Revista Cubana De Medicina Física Y Rehabilitación, 11(1), e363. https://revrehabilitacion.sld.cu/index.php/reh/article/view/362/477.
60.
Ontario Health (Quality). (2020). Continual long-term physiotherapy after stroke: A health technology assessment. Ontario Health Technology Assessment Series, 20(7), 1–70.
PageM. J.McKenzieJ. E.BossuytP. M.BoutronI.HoffmannT. C.MulrowC. D.ShamseerL.TetzlaffJ. M.AklE. A.BrennanS. E.ChouR.GlanvilleJ.GrimshawJ. M.HróbjartssonA.LaluM. M.LiT.LoderE. W.Mayo-WilsonE.McDonaldS.McGuinnessL. A.MoherD. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.), 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
63.
PalM. M. (2021). Glutamate: The master neurotransmitter and its implications in chronic stress and mood disorders. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 15, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.722323
64.
PangM. Y. C.YangL.OuyangH.LamF. M. H.HuangM.JehuD. A. (2018). Dual-Task exercise reduces cognitive-motor interference in walking and falls after stroke. Stroke, 49(12), 2990–2998. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.118.022157
65.
Pérez-de la CruzS. (2020). Comparison of aquatic therapy vs. Dry land therapy to improve mobility of chronic stroke patients. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(13), 4728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134728
66.
Pin-BarreC.LaurinJ. (2015). Physical exercise as a diagnostic, rehabilitation, and preventive tool: Influence on neuroplasticity and motor recovery after stroke. Neural Plasticity, 2015(1), 608581. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/608581
67.
PloughmanM.AustinM.AlcockL.CorbettD. (2015). The effects of poststroke aerobic exercise on neuroplasticity: A systematic review of animal and clinical studies. Translational Stroke Research, 6(1), 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12975-014-0357-7
68.
PoomalaiG.PrabhakarS.Sirala JagadeshN. (2023). Functional ability and health problems of stroke survivors: An explorative study. Cureus, 15(1), e33375. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.33375
69.
RochaL. S. O.GamaG. C. B.RochaR. S. B.RochaL. d. B.DiasC. P.SantosL. L. S.SantosM. C. d. S.MontebeloM. I. d. L.TeodoriR. M. (2021). Constraint induced movement therapy increases functionality and quality of life after stroke. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases, 30(6), 105774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2021.105774
70.
RoesnerK.SchefflerB.KaehlerM.Schmidt-MaciejewskiB.BoettgerT.SaalS. (2024). Effects of physical therapy modalities for motor function, functional recovery, and post-stroke complications in patients with severe stroke: A systematic review update. Systematic Reviews, 13(1), 270. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-024-02676-0
71.
Romero-HernandezM. D.Gil-AlfaroI.Ovando-DiegoL. (2024). Características clínicas y calidad de vida de los pacientes tras un evento vascular cerebral. Revista Mexicana De Medicina Familiar, 10(3), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.24875/rmf.23000041
72.
Ruiz GaviriaN.Martinez AyolaA. (2023). Reconociendo la importancia del dolor crónico, desde la teoría de la compuerta, pasando por la neuromatriz, hasta la educación en neurociencias del dolor(PNE). Ciencia Latina Internacional, 7(3), 7879–7890. https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v7i3.6769
73.
SchiemanckS.BerenpasF.van SwigchemR.van den MunckhofP.de VriesJ.BeelenA.NolletF.GeurtsA. C. (2015). Effects of implantable peroneal nerve stimulation on gait quality, energy expenditure, participation and user satisfaction in patients with post-stroke drop foot using an ankle-foot orthosis. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 33(6), 795–807. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-1505
74.
SeverinsenK.JakobsenJ. K.PedersenA. R.OvergaardK.AndersenH. (2014). Effects of resistance training and aerobic training on ambulation in chronic stroke. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 93(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1097/phm.0b013e3182a518e1
75.
ShefflerL. R.TaylorP. N.GunzlerD. D.BuurkeJ. H.IjzermanM. J.ChaeJ. (2013). Randomized controlled trial of surface peroneal nerve stimulation for motor relearning in lower limb hemiparesis. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 94(6), 1007–1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2013.01.024
76.
SinghN.SainiM.KumarN.SrivastavaM. V. P.MehndirattaA. (2021). Evidence of neuroplasticity with robotic hand exoskeleton for post-stroke rehabilitation: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation, 18(1), 76. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12984-021-00867-7
77.
StallardC. N.AnoruoM.SaadabadiA. (2022). Biochemistry, Glutamate. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.
78.
SteinC.FritschC. G.RobinsonC.SbruzziG.PlentzR. D. M. (2015). Effects of electrical stimulation in spastic muscles after stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Stroke, 46(8), 2197–2205. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.115.009633
79.
SteinbergG. K.KondziolkaD.WechslerL. R.LunsfordL. D.KimA. S.JohnsonJ. N.BatesD.PoggioG.CaseC.McGroganM.YankeeE. W.SchwartzN. E. (2019). Two-year safety and clinical outcomes in chronic ischemic stroke patients after implantation of modified bone marrow–derived mesenchymal stem cells (SB623): A phase 1/2a study. Journal of Neurosurgery JNS, 131(5), 1462–1472. https://doi.org/10.3171/2018.5.JNS173147
80.
TemperoniG.CurcioA.IosaM.MangiarottiM. A.MorelliD.De AngelisS.VerganoS.TramontanoM. (2020). A water-based sequential preparatory approach vs. conventional aquatic training in stroke patients: A randomized controlled trial with a 1-month follow-up. Frontiers in Neurology, 11, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00466
81.
TilkiciM.AlemdaroğluE.MandirogluS.Ordu-GokkayaN.UçanH.AykanS. (2017). The effect of upper extremity electrical stimulation in addition to conventional rehabilitation in individuals with chronic stroke: Randomized controlled study. Fiziksel Tıp Ve Rehabilitasyon Bilimleri Dergisi, 20(3), 126–133. https://www.jpmrs.org/uploads/483250600757231.pdf
82.
TsaoC. W.AdayA. W.AlmarzooqZ. I.AndersonC. A. M.AroraP.AveryC. L.Baker-SmithC.BeatonA. Z.BoehmeA. K.BuxtonA. E.Commodore-MensahY.ElkindM. S. V.EvensonK. R.Eze-NliamC.FugarS.GenerosoG.HeardD. G.HiremathS.HoJ. E.KalaniR., … American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistic Commitee and Stroke Statistics Subcommitee. (2023). Heart disease and stroke statistics—2023 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 147(8), e93–e621. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001123
83.
ÜnlüerNÖTemuçinÇMDemirN.Serel ArslanS.KaradumanA. A. (2019). Effects of low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on swallowing function and quality of life of post-stroke patients. Dysphagia, 34(3), 360–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-018-09965-6
84.
VahlbergB.CederholmT.LindmarkB.ZetterbergL.HellströmK. (2017). Short-term and long-term effects of a progressive resistance and balance exercise program in individuals with chronic stroke: A randomized controlled trial. Disability and Rehabilitation, 39(16), 1615–1622. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2016.1206631
85.
Vázquez MartínezV. H.Martínez BautistaH.Loera MoralesJ. I.Ruiz CarrizalesD. A. (2023). Risk factors for disability in patients with stroke in northeastern Mexico: A retrospective cross-sectional study. [Factores de riesgo para discapacidad en pacientes con accidente cerebrovascular en el noreste de México: Estudio retrospectivo transversal]. Atencion Primaria, 55(12), 102779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aprim.2023.102779
86.
WangC. Y.ChenY. C.WangC. H. (2021). Early rehabilitation in acute care inpatient wards may be crucial to functional recovery 3 months after ischemic stroke. Physical Therapy, 101(1), pzaa197. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/pzaa197
WilsonR. D.GunzlerD. D.BennettM. E.ChaeJ. (2014). Peripheral nerve stimulation compared with usual care for pain relief of hemiplegic shoulder pain: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 93(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1097/PHM.0000000000000011
89.
WinsteinC. J.SteinJ.ArenaR.BatesB.CherneyL. R.CramerS. C.DeruyterF.EngJ. J.FisherB.HarveyR. L.LangC. E.MacKay-LyonsM.OttenbacherK. J.PughS.ReevesM. J.RichardsL. G.StiersW.ZorowitzR. D. (2016). Guidelines for adult stroke rehabilitation and recovery. Stroke, 47(6), e98–e169. https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.0000000000000098
90.
WłodarczykL.CichońN.KarbownikM. S.SasoL.SalukJ.MillerE. (2023). Circulating Serum VEGF, IGF-1 and MMP-9 and expression of their genes as potential prognostic markers of recovery in post-stroke rehabilitation—A prospective observational study. Brain Sciences, 13(6), 846. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13060846
91.
WolfS. L.MiltonS. B.ReissA.EasleyK. A.ShenviN. V.ClarkP. C. (2012). Further assessment to determine the additive effect of botulinum toxin type A on an upper extremity exercise program to enhance function among individuals with chronic stroke but extensor capability. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 93(4), 578–587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2011.10.026
92.
WuC.ChenY.LinK.ChaoC.ChenY. (2012). Constraint-induced therapy with trunk restraint for improving functional outcomes and trunk-arm control after stroke: A randomized controlled trial. Physical Therapy, 92(4), 483–492. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.201102139
93.
WuM.LandryJ. M.KimJ.SchmitB. D.YenS. C.MacdonaldJ. (2014). Robotic resistance/assistance training improves locomotor function in individuals poststroke: A randomized control study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 95(5), 799–806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2013.12.021
94.
YakşiE.KetenciA.BasloM. B.OrhanE. K. (2021). Does transcutaneous electrical nevere stimulation affect pain, neuropathic pain, and sympathetic skin responses in the treatment of chronic low back pain? A randomized, placebo-controlled study. The Korean Journal of Pain, 32(2), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.3344/kjp.2021.34.2.217
95.
YouG.LiangH.YanT. (2014). Functional electrical stimulation early after stroke improves lower limb motor function and ability in activities of daily living. NeuroRehabilitation, 35(3), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-141129
96.
YoungB. M.HolmanE. A.CramerS. C. (2023). Rehabilitation therapy doses are low after stroke and predicted by clinical factors. Stroke, 54(3), 831–839. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.122.041098
97.
YuenM.OuyangH. X.MillerT.PangM. Y. C. (2021). Baduanjin qigong improves balance, leg strength, and mobility in individuals with chronic stroke: A randomized controlled study. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 35(5), 444–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/15459683211005020
98.
ZhangY.ZhangX.LinS. (2022). Irisin: A bridg between exercise and neurological diseases. Heliyon, 8(12), e12352. https://doi.org/j.heliyon.2022.e12352
