Students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often lack independent task initiation skills, have difficulty staying actively engaged in academic tasks, and may require prompting to complete and transition between tasks or activities. In response to these difficulties, teachers often provide additional attention to students in the form of frequent verbal prompts and individual support. Unfortunately, these instructional strategies may have negative academic and social implications as students become dependent on adults for prompts and social supports. This article highlights the importance of fostering student independence for students with ASD and presents three evidence-based strategies to improve student task engagement and decrease reliance on adult prompts: activity schedules, tactile prompting, and peer support interventions.
AlbertoP.A.TroutmanA. C. (2009). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2.
AngleseaM.M.HochH.TaylorB. A. (2008). Reducing rapid eating in teenagers with autism: Use of a pager prompt. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 107–111.
3.
AnsonH.ToddJ.CassarettoK. (2008). Replacing overt verbal and gestural prompts with unobtrusive covert tactile prompting for students with autism. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 1106–1110.
4.
BaerD. M.WolfM. M.RisleyT. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91–97.
5.
BaerD. M.WolfM. M.RisleyT. R. (1987). Some still-current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 313–327.
6.
BandaD.GrimmettE. (2008). Enhancing social and transition behaviors of persons with autism through activity schedules: A review. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43, 324–333.
7.
BandaD.GrimmettE.HartS. (2009). Activity schedules: Helping students with autism spectrum disorders in general education classrooms manage transition issues. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 41, 16–21.
8.
BandaD. R.HartS. L.Liu-GitzL. (2010). Impact of training peers and children with autism on social skills during center time activities in inclusive classrooms. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 619–625.
9.
BlauveltH.SymonJ. B. G.FreaW. D. (2008). Recess is time-in: Using peers to improve social skills of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 815–826.
10.
BryanL.GastD. (2000). Teaching on-task and on-schedule behaviors to high-functioning children with autism via picture activity schedules. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 553–567.
11.
CarterE.CushingL.ClarkN.KennedyC. (2005). Effects of peer support interventions on students’ access to the general curriculum and social interactions. Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 30, 15–25.
12.
DettmerS.SimpsonR.MylesB.GanzJ. (2000). The use of visual supports to facilitate transitions of students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 15, 163–169.
13.
Garrison-HarrellL.KampsD.KravitsT. (1997). The effects of peer networks on social-communicative behaviors for students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 12, 241–254.
14.
GiangrecoM.BroerS. (2005). Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: Are we addressing symptoms or causes?Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20, 10–26.
15.
GiangrecoM.EdelmanS.LuiselliT.MacFarlandS. (1997). Helping or hovering? Effects of instructional assistant proximity on students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 64, 7–18.
16.
GiangrecoM.SmithC.PinckneyE. (2006). Addressing the paraprofessional dilemma in an inclusive school: A program description. Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 31, 215–229.
17.
Gonzalez-LopezA.KampsD. M. (1997). Social skills training to increase social interactions between children with autism and their typical peers. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 12, 2–15.
18.
HallL. J.McClannahanL. E.KrantzP. J. (1995). Promoting independence in integrated classrooms by teaching aides to use activity schedules and decreased prompts. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 30, 208–217.
19.
HumeK.LoftinR.LantzJ. (2009). Increasing independence in autism spectrum disorders: A review of three focused interventions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1329–1338.
20.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (1990)(amended 1997)
21.
The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 1990. (1990). 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400 et seq.
22.
The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004. 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004)(reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990).
23.
KampsD. M.DuganE.PotucekJ.CollinsA. (1999). Effects of cross-age peer tutoring networks among students with autism and general education students. Journal of Behavioral Education, 9, 97–115.
24.
KampsD. M.PotucekJ.LopezA. G.KravitsT.KemmererK. (1997). The use of peer networks across multiple settings to improve social interaction for students with autism. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 335–357.
25.
KohlerF. W.GretemanC.RaschkeD.HighnamC. (2007). Using a buddy skills package to increase the social interactions between a preschooler with autism and her peers. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27, 155–163.
26.
LausheyK.HeflinL. (2000). Enhancing social skills of kindergarten children with autism through the training of multiple peers as tutors. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 183–193.
27.
LequiaJ.MachalicekW.RispoliM. J. (in press). Effects of activity schedules on challenging behavior exhibited in children with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders.
28.
MacDuffG.KrantzP. J.McClannahanL. E. (1993). Teaching children with autism to use photographic activity schedules: Maintenance and generalization of complex response chains. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 89–97.
29.
MachalicekW.DavisT.O’ReillyM.BeretvasN.SigafoosJ.LancioniG.GreenV.EdrisinhaC. (2009). Teaching social skills in school settings. In LuiselliJ. K.RussoD. C.ChristianW. P.WilczynskiS. M. (Eds.). Effective practices for children with autism: Educational and behavioral support interventions that work (pp. 269–298). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
30.
MachalicekW.O’ReillyM. F.BeretvasS. N.SigafoosJ.LancioniG.SorrellsA.LangR.RispoliM. (2008). A review of school-based instructional interventions for students with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2, 395–416.
31.
MaheadyL.HarperG. F.MalletteB. (2001). Peer-mediated instruction and interventions and students with mild disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 22, 4–14.
32.
MalmgrenK.Causton-TheoharisJ. (2006). Boy in the bubble: Effects of paraprofessional proximity and other pedagogical decisions on the interactions of a student with behavioral disorders. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 20, 301–312.
33.
MasseyN. G.WheelerJ. J. (2000). Acquisition and generalization of activity schedules and their effects on task engagement in a young child with autism in an inclusive pre-school classroom. Education & Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 35(3), 326–335.
McClannahanL.KrantzP. (2010). Activity schedules for children with autism: Teaching independent behavior (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.
36.
MechlingL. C. (2007). Assistive technology as a self-management tool for prompting students with intellectual disabilities to initiate and complete daily tasks: A literature review. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 42, 252–269.
37.
MorrisonL.KampsD.GarciaJ.ParkerD.DunlapG. (2001). Peer mediation and monitoring strategies to improve initiations and social skills for students with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 237–250.
38.
NewmanB.ReineckeD.MeinbergD. (2000). Self-management of varied responding in three students with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 15, 145–151.
39.
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. 20 U.S.C. 70 § 6301 et seq. (2002)
40.
PierceK.SchreibmanL. (1994). Teaching daily living skills to children with autism in unsupervised settings through pictorial self-management. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 27, 471–481.
41.
RoeyersH. (1996). The influence of non-handicapped peers on the social interactions of children with a pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 303–320.
42.
ShabaniD. B.KatzR. C.WilderD. A.BeauchampK.TaylorC. R.FischerK. J. (2002). Increasing social initiations in children with autism: Effects of a tactile prompt. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 79–83.
43.
TarboxR. S. F.WallaceM. D.PenrodB.TarboxJ. (2007). Effects of three-step prompting on compliance with caregiver requests. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 703–706.
44.
TaylorB. A.HughesC. E.RichardE.HochH.Rodriquez CoelloA. (2004). Teaching teenagers with autism to seek assistance when lost. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37, 70–82.
45.
TaylorB.LevinL. (1998). Teaching a student with autism to make verbal initiations: Effects of a tactile prompt. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 651–654.
46.
ThiemannK. S.GoldsteinH. (2004). Effects of peer training and written text cueing on social communication of school-age children with pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 126–144.
