Experiential learning efforts in the 1950s mimicked the logistic operational gaming of World War II; the results were encouraging. Subsequently, funded research efforts over three decades focused on gaming phenomena. Computers permitted more elaborate games, creating the illusion that they might be used for prediction; subsequent research established the potential of games for communicating complexity. By the late 1970s, large organizations were losing faith in the ability of other disciplinary approaches to deal with complex decision environments that defied quantification. Prompted by crisis, these clients sought to employ gaming for developing strategic plans. Many gaming projects, national and international, presented the context for observations about the evolution of knowledge of the disciplinary characteristics of gaming. Both advantages and disadvantages of viewing gaming as a disciplined activity are considered. The evolution of professional organizations, related academic activity, the game design process, and the need for consistent use of terms are also addressed.
Armstrong, R.
(1995). Gaming simulation in perspective. In D. Crookall & K. Arai, Simulation and gaming across disciplines and cultures: ISAGA at a watershed (pp. 213-224). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2.
CLUG. Feldt, A. G. (1972). Riverside, NJ: Free Press, Department FNY (Riverside, NJ 08075, USA).
3.
Crookall, D.
, & Arai, K. (1995). Simulation and gaming across disciplines and cultures: ISAGA at a watershed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
4.
Duke, R. D.
(1960). Automatic data processing: Its application to urban planning. Ann Arbor: Michigan State University, Institute for Community Development.
5.
Duke, R. D.
(1961). The model as a tool for planning. Michigan Society of Planning Officials Newsletter, 8 (1), 10-16.
6.
Duke, R. D.
(1962, December). Computer technology and planning. American Institute of Planners Newsletter (Part 1), 6-9.
7.
Duke, R. D.
(1963). Gaming simulation studies in urban resource allocation. The Bulletin of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning, 1 (3), 6-11.
8.
Duke, R. D.
(1964). Ganing-simulation in urban research. Ann Arbor: Michigan State University, Institute for Community Development.
9.
Duke, R. D.
(1965, April). Gaming urban systems. Paper presented at the Planning 1965 joint conference of the American Society of Planning Officials and the Community Planning Association of Canada, Toronto.
10.
Duke, R. D.
(1966). The application of heuristic gaming to urban problems. In Proceedings of the Operations Research Society of American (pp. 20-34). Houston: Texas State University.
11.
Duke, R. D.
(1967, August). Simulating urban environments. Archiv, 4-22.
12.
Duke, R. D.
(1971a). METRO/APEX. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Environmental Simulation Laboratory. (This 28-volume series includes Game Director's Manual; Computer Operator's Manual; Material for pregame directions; Manuals for Air Pollution Control Officer, City and County Politicians, City and County Planners; Five Separate Industrial, Seven Separate Developers, and several reference volumes).
13.
Duke, R. D.
(1971b). Systems theory and gaming simulation. In Proceedings of the Second ISAGA Gaming Conference (pp. 31-46). Utrecht, the Netherlands: University of Utrecht.
14.
Duke, R. D.
(1972). The language of gaming. In Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference of the National Gaming Council (pp. 24-37). Baltimore: University of Maryland.
15.
Duke, R. D.
(1973, September). Toward a general theory of gaming. Proceedings. Joint NASAGA/ISAGA Gaming Conference, Washington, DC.
16.
Duke, R. D.
(1974). Gaming: The future's language. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, and New York: Wiley.
17.
Duke, R. D.
(1975a). Environmental simulation gaming exercise on environment and tourism. In Proceedings of the European Coordination Centre for Research and Documentation in the Social Sciences (pp. 1-48). Vienna, Austria: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.
18.
Duke, R. D.
(1975b). METROPOLIS: The urban systems game (3 vols.). New York: Gamed Simulations, Inc.
19.
Duke, R. D.
(1975c, December). Proceedings. Human Settlement Management Seminar, Dakar, Senegal Meeting; UNESCO.
20.
Duke, R. D.
(1976a). The human settlement gaming/simulation exercise: A history of UNESCO's usage of gaming methodology for training human settlement managers in the Third World. In Proceedings of the 7th Annual ISAGA Conference (pp. 23-35). Caracas, Venezuela: Simon Bolivar University.
21.
Duke, R. D.
(1976b). Training human settlement managers. In Proceedings of the UNESCO International Workshop on the Training of Human Settlement Managers (pp. 1-45). Kumasi/Tema, Ghana: University of Science and Technology.
22.
Duke, R. D.
(1977a). Gaming/simulation and the science/public policy interface. In Proceedings of the 8th Annual International Simulation and Gaming Association Conference (pp. 16-29). Lund, Sweden: University of Lund.
23.
Duke, R. D.
(1977b). Handbook for the organization and design of games. Paris: UNESCO.
24.
Duke, R. D.
(1977c). METRO-Final report to the Ford Foundation. Ann Arbor: Environmental Simulation Laboratory, University of Michigan (with staff).
25.
Duke, R. D.
(1977d). National nutrition planning in developing countries via gaming/simulation. Health Education Monographs, 5 (Suppl. 1).
26.
Duke, R. D.
(1977e). The simulated nutrition system, Phase I (SNUS). Journal of Natural Resource Management and Interdisciplinary Studies, 2 (1), 33-37.
27.
Duke, R. D.
(1978). General system game kit. Paris: UNESCO, Human Settlement Planning.
28.
Duke, R. D.
(1979a). Gaming/simulation as a public policy tool. In Proceedings of the 18th Annual Meeting of the North American Simulation and Gaming Association (pp. 28-36). Austin: University of Texas.
29.
Duke, R. D.
(1979b). Nine steps to game design. In Proceedings of the 10th International Simulation and Gaming Association Conference (pp. 31-42). Leeuwarden, the Netherlands: University of Leeuwarden.
30.
Duke, R. D.
(1979c). Santa Cruz land use game. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
31.
Duke, R. D.
(1980a). Format for the game-logic or intuition?Simulation & Games: An International Journal, 2 (1), 27-35.
32.
Duke, R. D.
(1980b). Management under complexity-gaming/simulation as a pre-decision tool. In Proceedings of the Annual International Simulation and Gaming Association Conference (pp. 53-67). Geneva, Switzerland: University of Geneva.
33.
Duke, R. D.
(1980c). A paradigm for game design. Simulation & Games: An International Journal, 2 (3), 364-378.
34.
Duke, R. D.
(1981). ODECAS, Municipal Budget Game. Norman: Oklahoma Department of Economic and Community Affairs.
35.
Duke, R. D.
(1994, August). Science, technology and public policy: A problem in communications. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Regional Information Systems (pp. 18-23), Tokyo, Japan: Tokyo Institute of Technology.
36.
Duke, R. D.
(1995a). Communicating complexity with the policy exercise. Manuscript in preparation.
37.
Duke, R. D.
(1995b). How to design and build simulation games. Manuscript in preparation.
38.
Duke, R. D.
, & Meier, R. E. (1966). Gaming simulation for urban planning. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 32 (1), 3-18.
39.
Duke, R. D.
, Feldt, A., Hansen, H., & Miller, R. (1970). Dortmund-The laboratory community. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Environmental Simulation Laboratory.
40.
Duke, R. D.
, Feldt, A., Hansen, H., & Miller, R. (1977). Stadtentwicklung: Planspiel-Simulation als Hilfsmittel fü die Stadtebauliche Planing [Monograph]. Bonn, Germany: Datum E. V.
41.
Duke, R. D.
, & Greenblat, C. S. (1979). Game-generating games: A trilogy of games for community & classroom. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, and New York: Wiley.
42.
EQUATIONS. Allen, L. E. (1964). New Haven, CT: Autotelic Instruction Materials Publishers.
43.
Greenblat, C. S.
, & Duke, R. D. (Eds.). (1975). Gaming-simulation: Rationale, design, and applications. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, and New York: Wiley.
44.
Greenblat, C. S.
, & Duke, R. D. (1981). Principles and practices of gaming-simulation. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, and New York: Wiley.
45.
HEALTHPLAY. Duke, R. D., et al. (1995). Austin, TX: Quantum Solutions, Inc. (1250 Capital of Texas Highway, South, Building Two, Suite 540, Austin, TX 78746, USA).
46.
HEX. Duke, R. D. (1965). Ann Arbor, MI: Multilogue International (329 Lake Park Lane, Ann Arbor, MI 48103, USA).
47.
IVHS. Duke, R. D., & Underwood, S. (1995). Unpublished.
48.
METRO. Duke, R. D.et al. (1966). East Lansing: Michigan State University, Institute for Community Development.
49.
METRO/APEX. Duke, R. D., et al. (1968). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Environmental Simulation Laboratory (Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA).
50.
METROPOLIS. Duke, R. D. (1964). East Lansing: Michigan State University, Institute for Community Development.
51.
POLARITY MANAGEMENT. Duke, R. D., et al. (1995). Unpublished.
52.
POLICY NEGOTIATIONS. Goodman, F. L. (1970). Ann Arbor, MI: Urbex Affiliates (P.O. Box 2198, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, USA).
53.
POLLEX. McGinty, R., et al. (1967). Los Angeles: University of Southern California, the POLLEX Project, School of Public Administration (Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA).
54.
S.E.I.D.L.Duke, R. D.
, & Frank, A. (1994). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, College of Architecture and Urban Planning, I.J.C. Great Lakes Project (Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA).
55.
SIMSOC. Gamson, W. A.New York: Free Press (866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022, USA).
56.
SNUS. Duke, R. D. (1975). Rome, Italy: Food & Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100, Rome, Italy).
57.
TRANSFORMATION. Duke, R. D., Hart, S., & Svoboda, S. (1994). Unpublished.
58.
Wff' n' Prff'. Allen, L. E. (1962). New Haven, CT: Autotelic Instruction Materials Publishers.
