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Abstract

The contemporary agricultural natural fiber is effectively used for fabricating composites because of its economical, ample availability, and biodegradability. In this way, the potential material for the reinforcement of hybrid (paddy straw and pineapple leaf) fiber- and ortho-laminated polyester composites was conducted. This research article is focused on the hybridization of untreated, treated, and paddy pulp fiber-reinforced polyester composite laminates. The unidirectional paddy straw fiber and pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) were used in the fabrication process of laminate using a compression molding machine with the mold dimensions of 300 × 300 × 5 mm is used and the investigation of mechanical (tensile, flexural, impact, hardness, shear) behaviors are conducted in the samples as per the standard. Five samples were prepared by varying the fiber content in the matrix in which sample S1 pure polyester plate without any addition of reinforcement. Out of these five samples, sample 4 (S4) produced better tensile, flexural, impact, hardness, and shear values of 28 MPa, 61 MPa, 3.46 Joules, 64 HR L, and 68.7 MPa, respectively. Comparing the laminate samples of S1 and S4 there is a 35.2% increase in the tensile value of S4, similarly, other values also resulted in better hikes. In addition to that, the water absorption properties of the laminate were also evaluated and fiber breakage, fiber pullout, fiber orientation, crack propagation, and voids on the fractured specimens were identified with help of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Overall, the fabricated hybrid composite laminates were lightweight and has good fiber-matrix bonding with improved mechanical and morphological properties for commercial and home need applications.

Keywords

Paddy straw pineapple leaf fiber ortho-laminated polyester resin mechanical properties water absorption test

Introduction

Searching for new materials to replace traditional ones, currently utilized in automotive, sports equipment, marine, aerospace, and household applications due to the rapid advancement in material science. The new material must be safe for the environment, biodegradable, strength to weight ratio, recyclable, machinable, non-toxic, and readily available. To achieve the above-mentioned desirable qualities, composite materials are created using natural fibers and polymers. Natural fibers are a renewable resource for underdeveloped countries since they pose no health risks, are less expensive, and lead to pollution reduction by identifying the creation of novel materials from waste products. Furthermore, these fibers are more commonly used in automotive, structural, and industrial applications. The main objective of this study is to use different varieties of agricultural waste to accomplish the final product with the addition of any other natural fiber or filler impregnated to the composite laminate to generate revenue from agricultural waste and to reduce pollution due to the use of artificial fibers. Many natural fibers in polymer matrix composite their mechanical, and chemical properties, and their scientific names. The mechanical behaviors were analyzed in all categories of natural fiber composite materials. The potential for developing novel natural fiber-impregnated polymer matrix composites is an alternative to synthetic fiber composites.^1–3Various chemical treatments like silane, acetylation, benzoylation, alkali, acrylation, isocyanates, and permanganate, which is aimed at improving the fiber surface and quality and also increasing the strength.^4–6 The treated and raw (untreated) Barbata flower fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. The 20 wt% treated fiber-loaded composites show superior mechanical properties than the other weight percentage of composites.⁷ The ideal fiber treatment parameters, the impact of soaking duration, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution concentration were investigated based on calculated readings of mechanical characteristics.⁸ NaOH treatment as a better surface finish for the palmyra fruit fiber-reinforced polyester composites, which is compared to other chemical treatments by observing the mechanical and wear properties of the final laminate. Fiber debonding and fiber cracking have been identified as the main causes of fiber failure in polyester composites reinforced with untreated fiber.⁹ The paddy straw reinforcement with the addition of glass fiber has progressively improved the physical characteristics of the composites. The paddy straw fiber was soaked in 2% of NaOH concentration for 2 days (48 hours). 15% NaOH concentration suitable for Phoenix sp fiber and explored the dynamic and static mechanical properties of the epoxy composites.^10–13 Based on the research previously carried out on fiber treatment, after careful consideration, the paddy straw and pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) fibers are chemically treated using NaOH in this current research work.

Jeyapragash et al. reported the flexural, tensile, and impact properties of chitosan, rice husk, red-mud, and CG fiber–epoxy composites. The tensile, flexural, and impact test values of 64.3 MPa, 80.3 MPa, and 56.2 kJ/m² were attained in Calotropis gigentea fiber-reinforced composites and find out the specimen with a fiber length of 100 mm and a fiber weight percentage of 40% had maximum flexural, tensile, and impact strength of 121.09 MPa,60.53 MPa, and 43.54 kJ/m², respectively.^14,15 Generally increasing the filler content (graphene, calcium carbonate, and aluminum oxide) in the laminate, improved the material’s flexural, tensile, and impact strength. This improves the strength of the composite and is the consequence of properly dispersing graphene throughout the matrix, it transfers a consistent load from resin to reinforcement.^16–18 The natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) are superior tensile/flexural strengths and moduli can be attained with a 30–40% fiber weight fraction. The best fiber length for NFRPCs is between 20 and 50 mm, which can be employed to get excellent tensile and flexural properties. By treating the fibers with a 5% weight alkali, NFRPCs can obtain good tensile and flexural characteristics and also damping and sound absorption properties of polymer matrix composites.^19,20 The sun hemp fibers, it has taken different types of fiber orientations (0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90) chopped fiber, short fiber, long fiber, biaxial, and triaxial. Triaxial reinforcement orientation in sun hemp fiber-polyester resin composites showed superior values for flexural, tensile, impact, and hardness behaviors. Abaca and neem fibers placed in 45° orientations have superior mechanical behaviors than the vertical and horizontal orientations.^21,22 The flexural and tensile moduli increased with an escalation of nano-clay up to 2 wt % and then decreased. Nano-clay-filled composites often exhibit better mechanical properties than nano-silica-filled composites.²³ The hybridization process would help to increase the strength of polymer matrix composites reinforced with different natural fibers and suitable filler materials may help improve the characteristics of composites then 10% glass fiber, 20% jute fiber, and 10% tea fiber achieved the optimum mechanical properties, it can be an alternative material for the pure glass fiber.^24–27 Ramprasath et al. determined that both meta-heuristic and statistical methods were used to optimize the mechanical behaviors of coir fiber-reinforced vinyl ester composites with the addition of red mud particles.²⁸

Jayabal et al. demonstrated the fiber pull-out began with natural fibers before moving on to glass fibers and an excellent interfacial bonding was created between the woven glass and polyester resin as opposed to the coir-polyester matrix using a scanning electron microscope (SEM).²⁹ The kenaf and sisal fiber epoxy hybrid composites (9% kenaf, 21% sisal fiber, and 70% resin) achieve high-impact energy absorption and are also fabricated by car bumpers with the hybrid composite. This is suitable for automobile applications for the light weight of non-load and load-bearing members.³⁰ The evaluations were expanded to include machinability and optimization of mechanical characteristics for the enlargement of roselle fiber-reinforced polyester matrix composite, it may find used in many area applications like structural, marine, and industrial applications.³¹

Rice straws and agricultural wastes were recycled to create a cellulosic fiber that could be utilized as a textile raw material. Using this fiber, a nonwoven fabric was created.^32–34 The pre-treated rice straw composites made with NaOH at 80 °C had extreme bending, tensile and shear strengths, and also impact thickness swelling, and water absorption percentages of increase with increases of rice straw/polyvinyl alcohol/polystyrene and paddy straw fiber mat/glass fiber mat/polyester resin in the composites.^35–38 Rajesh Kumar et al.’s findings showed that the loss of flexural and tensile capabilities occurred as the moisture absorption rate increased with fiber length, volume fraction, and immersion temperature.³⁹ Singh finds the new areas of paddy pulp as reinforcement in polymer matrix composites. It is utilized for making a variety of table-size models and floor furnishing materials, etc.⁴⁰

Countless research studies have been conducted in the field of natural fiber composites, some propose different methods and experimental setups to fabricate the laminates and some articles describe state-of-art testing methodologies. Several novel composite laminates have also been fabricated by many researchers around the world, but the research studies in part of hybrid composites are limited in number. Particularly the articles related to the fabrication and testing of paddy straw-based hybrid composites are not detailed in the previous literature available.

The present study is focusing on the fabrication of hybrid (paddy straw and PALF) fiber-reinforced polyester composites and the evaluation of mechanical, morphological, and water absorption behaviors of the concerned composites.

Materials and methods

Extraction of fibers

Nowadays, all agricultural crops are harvested by using farm equipment and machinery, while using machines to harvest the agricultural land, the paddy straw fiber is crushed inside the machine. This is not suitable for fabricating composite plates because the natural properties of the fiber get degraded. Hand-harvested paddy straw is stiffness properties are high compared to machine-harvested straw. The hand harvested paddy straw fibers are obtained from the farmer in Thiruvallur district, Tamilnadu, India. Paddy straw fiber has been removed from the paddy, unwanted sheath, and dusts, finally getting the paddy stem which is used for the fabricating composite. The chemical composition of fiber is shown in Table 1. A photographic image of the paddy straw extraction process is shown in Figure 1. Pineapple leaf fiber was extracted using a fiber extractor machine from Easwari Engineering College, Chennai. The extraction of PALF is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1.

Photographic image of the paddy straw extraction process.

Figure 2.

Photographic image of the extraction of PALF fiber.

Table 1.

Chemical composition of fibers.

S. no.	Fiber	Density (g/cm³)	Cellulose (%)	Hemi cellulose (%)	Lignin (%)	Wax (%)
1	Paddy straw (PS)	0.8	28–48	23–28	14	20	Khan et.al 2018
2	Pine apple leaf fiber (PALF)	1.2	80	0	12	3–5	Thiruchitrambalam et. al 2010

Surface treatment of extracted fibers

Raw fibers or extracted fibers are not directly used for the fabrication of composites because of their limited strength. Chemical treatments are required to improve the strength of the raw fibers because it contains some impurities on the surface like oil, lignin, and wax content. These impurities can be removed by appropriate chemical treatments. Many types of chemical treatments were conducted in polymer matrix composites such as sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, peroxide, permanganate, benzoylation, etc. NaOH treatment is most commonly used in natural fiber. 5% NaOH and soaking time 2 hours immersed in the paddy straw fiber at room temperature. After taking the fiber was washed with normal water and distilled water thoroughly to eliminate the excess NaOH surface of the fibers. Through this treatment raw fiber is converted into treated fiber. A photographic image of soaked fiber for NaOH treatment is shown in Figure 3 and a schematic flow chart of the process is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3.

Photographic image of soaked fiber for NaOH treatment.

Figure 4.

Schematic flow chart of the process.

Matrix properties

Polyester resin is generally used in the composite manufacturing industry because of its wide availability and low cost than the other resin. It can be smoothed and concludes effects in a generally perfect surface. The matrix used is unsaturated ortho-lamination polyester resin (VBR 2303), it requires a catalyst (VBR 1204—methyl ethyl ketone peroxide) and an accelerator (VBR 1201—cobalt octoate). Polyester resin physical properties are shown in Table 2. It is a mixing ratio of 2:1.5 as a matrix, which is adaptable to the reinforcement and manufacturing process. Polyester resin, accelerator, and catalyst were purchased from the Fiber Region, Chennai.

Table 2.

Polyester resin properties.

S. no.	Test	Values
1	Density (g/cm³)	1.132
2	Viscosity @ 25 °C (cp)	470
3	Volatile content (%)	36.2
4	Acid value (mg KOH/g)	25.18
5	Gel time @ 25 °C (min)	14
6	Appearance	Pale yellowish clear Liquid

Composite fabrication

The fabrication of all composite laminates was done using a hydraulic compression molding machine with a capacity of the 40-ton semi-automatic method. The fabrication of composite laminate dimension was (300 × 300 × 5) mm in Figure 5. Unidirectional paddy straw fiber stagnated into the mold, top and bottom layers of a bi-directional pineapple leaf mat were used while fabricating the composite laminates. Different types of laminate are shown in Table 3 (where UT stands for untreated fiber and T stands for treated fiber).

Figure 5.

S4 laminate model.

Table 3.

Different types of laminates.

S. no.	Composite name	Fiber Lay up	Matrix (%)	Hybrid fiber (%)
S. no.	Composite name	Fiber Lay up	Matrix (%)	PS	PALF
1	S1	[Polyester]	100	0	0
2	S2	[PALF + PS(UT) + PALF]	60	30	10
3	S3	[PALF + PS (T) + PALF]	60	30	10
4	S4	[PALF + PS (T) + PALF + PS (T) + PALF]	60	25	15
5	S5	[PALF + paddy pulp + PALF]	60	30	10

Tensile test

ASTM standard D638-03 has followed the tensile test specimens of the fabricated composite laminates were prepared to the dimensions of (165 × 19 × 5) mm.¹⁵ The tensile test was conducted using (UTM-5ton; Associated Scientific Engg. Works, New Delhi). Five sets of samples were prepared, and taking the test finally the average ultimate tensile strength was noted down with a uniform crosshead speed of 1.5 mm/min and a gauge length of 100 mm.

Flexural test

The five sets of flexural test samples were prepared with the dimensions of (127 × 12.7 × 5) mm based on ASTM standard D790-10.¹⁵ The sample was easily fixed on a three-point loader using a span length of 50.8 mm and the load was given at the rate of 5 mm/min. The average flexural strength was found by the following equation (1)

σ = \frac{3 p l}{2 b t^{2}}

(1)

where P is the maximum load; l is the span length; b is the width; and t is the thickness, respectively.

Impact test

The five sets of impact test samples were prepared based on ASTM D 256-10, the size of (65.5 × 12.7 × 5) mm.¹⁶ The impact test was completed using the XJJU-5.5 model, with a pendulum of the potential energy of 5.5 J and an impact speed of 4.5 m/s (Izod). Finally, the average impact strength values were noted.

Hardness test

The hardness test of hybrid composites is carried out using a Rockwell hardness tester, HRL scale with an indentor of 6.35 mm ball diameter and a load of 60 kgf. As per the ASTM E 18 standard,²¹ the indentors can be either diamond sphero conical or tungsten carbide balls. The hardness values are taken at five different places in all samples and the average value has been taken down.

Shear test

In-plane shear strength (IPSS) of the fabricated different types of the composite was conducted based on the ASTM standard of D 7617.¹⁰ The following equation is given by IPSS

IPSS = \frac{P c_{\max}}{t * h}

(2)

where, Pc_max is the ultimate compressive load, h is the distance between the two notches, and t is the thickness.

Water absorption test

The samples were prepared to the dimensions for water absorption conducted by taking the weight difference of the specimen after and before submerged in water for a period of 24 hours (one day). After the removal of the specimens from the water, it was cleaned thoroughly with the dry cloth or tissue paper for removing the moisture content on their surface. This experiment was regularly repeated at a saturation of 24, 48, 72, 96, 120, and up to 240 hours. The following equation calculated by weight gain of the sample.¹⁰

W_{g} = \frac{W_{2} - W_{1}}{W_{1}} \times 100

(3)

where W₁ is the initial weight of the specimen, W₂ is the after weight of the specimen, and W_g is the weight gain percentage.

Results and discussion

The calculated testing values of tensile, flexural, Impact, hardness, shear, and water absorption behaviors of untreated, alkali-treated paddy straw and paddy pulp with PALF-added reinforced composites are given in Table 4.

Table 4.

Ultimate stress values of shear strength.

Composites	Break load (kN)	Displacement at FMAX (mm)	Maximum displacement (mm)	Ultimate stress (MPa)
S1	0.24	1.0	1.6	5.2
S2	0.78	2	2	12.3
S3	1.975	1.60	2.30	39.2
S4	3.465	2	2.5	68.7
S5	2.635	1.10	1.50	50.6

Tensile strength

The tensile strength of the composition of fiber is shown in Figure 6. The tensile test was conducted on the five different laminate samples to understand the tensile test values and to know the contribution made by the untreated, treated, and pulp-fabricated samples. The results revealed that 15 wt% (S4 sample) PALF-added polyester composite achieved the maximum tensile strength values of 28 MPa, which is higher than the other combinations. It is observed that the PALF-loaded intermittently as well as the strength also increased due to the good adhesion stress transfer taking place between the fiber and matrix. Generally, the PALF is strong and stiffer than the paddy straw fibers, which is the cause of the increase in the tensile strength. The S2 and S3 samples 10 wt% PALF mat added (top and bottom) untreated and treated values are 17 MPa and 24 MPa, respectively. S5 sample (paddy pulp)-reinforced polyester composite is 12 MPa only, which is very less in interfacial bonding and then decreases the tensile strength of the fabricated laminates.¹⁶ The stress–strain graph was shown in Figure 7. Unidirectional composite laminates demonstrated the greatest resistance to applied force deformation. The ultimate tensile strength varied significantly between the four stacking sequences in the case of untreated, treated, and paddy pulp hybrid composite laminate.

Figure 6.

Tensile strength of composite samples.

Figure 7.

Stress–strain graph for tensile strength.

Micrograph inference on tensile tested specimens

Figure 8(a) and (b) illustrates the morphology of the tensile fractured specimen surface of the hybrid composite. Figure 8(a) shows that fiber pullout, fiber breakage, and some voids occurred, which revealed minimum strength, poor bonding, and poor fiber-matrix interface of the composite laminate. Figure 8(b) shows that fiber splitting and pot hole, which supports transferring load from fiber to the matrix and placing the paddy straw fibers centrally hampers the PALF mat interaction and increases the delamination and debonding which causes a decrease in tensile strength in other fractured specimens.

Figure 8.

(a and b) SEM images of the tensile fractured surface.

Flexural strength

The flexural strength of the composition of fibers is shown in Figure 9. The flexural test was conducted on the five different laminates, to understand the flexural test values and to know the contribution made by the untreated, treated and pulp-fabricated samples. The results showed that 15% PALF (S4 sample) added polyester composite achieved the values of 61 MPa, which is higher than the other combinations. 3 PALF mat used to top, bottom and middle layer (Figure 5), which is adhesion property and bending property is a good condition in the respect S4 laminate. 10% PALF added untreated and treated values are 29 MPa and 55 MPa, respectively, due to the stress transfer mechanism being partially added in those laminates. The flexural strength was increased with the addition of a PALF mat while fabricating the laminate because paddy straw fibers have limited strength and break in a short time, the PALF continue to withstand the force until the failure of the composite laminate.²⁶ The paddy pulp reinforced polyester composite is 47 MPa achieved in S5 sample.

Figure 9.

Flexural strength of composite samples.

Micrograph inference on flexural tested specimens

Figure 10(a) and (b) shows the morphology of the flexural fracture specimen surface of the hybrid composite. From the microscope image Figure 10(a), it is clearly shown that rice straw fracture and PALF splitting due to the mechanical interlocking between the matrix and fiber. Figure 10(b) clearly indicates that the failure of the specimen was due to the pot holes, voids, and reinforcement breakage due to the minimum strength, poor bonding, and poor-fiber-matrix interface of the composite.

Figure 10.

(a and b) SEM images of the flexural fractured surface.

Impact strength

The term impact strength refers to the ability of hybrid composites to resist fractures under high-velocity applied stress. The impact strength of various composite test values is shown in Figure 11. The impact test was lead on the five different laminate specimens to know the impact test values and influence made by the untreated, treated, and pulp-fabricated samples. The minimum impact strength value of untreated paddy straw fiber composite is 1.5 J. The maximum impact strength values of Paddy straw with 3 PALF mat added composite is 3.46 J (S4), respectively, due to the impact force assisted the hybrid composite laminate to absorb more amount of impact force excellently than the other laminates. It was observed that the PALF added intermittently increases the impact values due to the good adhesion property of the inside structure. The paddy pulp reinforced polyester composite is 1.1 J achieved in S5 sample. The Top and bottom layer of PALF creates a very strong bridging rupture and also diminishes the stress transformation to the paddy straw fibers.³⁶

Figure 11.

Impact strength of the different composite sample.

Impact-tested specimens using micrograph inference

Explore the broken surfaces of the impact-tested samples were identified using SEM. In order to judge the fiber breakage, Fiber pullout, matrix unfilled area, interfacial bonding, and fiber splitting between the fiber and matrix. From Figure 12(a) It is clear that many fibers failures due to the sudden acting on the impact in a particular region. Figure 12(b) shows that in highlighted places the interfacial bonding is good and the matrix was unfilled due to the reason of fiber pullout and breakage in the impact load.

Figure 12.

(a and b) SEM images of impact fractured surface.

Hardness test

A Rockwell hardness testing machine was used to assess resistance to penetration. The surface Hardness strength of the composite sample is shown in Figure 13. The maximum hardness value is achieved by 64 HRL (S4 sample) with the addition of a PALF mat in treated paddy straw fiber and may increase the stiffness in the fabricated sample. The Minimum value is polyester 25 HRL. S2 and S3 sample hardness values are 38 HRL and 53 HRL. The paddy pulp reinforced polyester composite is 42 HRL achieved in S5 sample.

Figure 13.

Hardness strength of composite samples.

Shear strength

A universal testing machine is utilized for taking double shear tests as per the ASTM standard. Figure 14 shows the shear behavior of the laminate stacking structures. The shear behavior of the S4 composite is higher than other laminated composites. The S4 laminate value is 68.7 MPa. The shear strength of other samples S2, S3, and S5 polyester composite is close to each other. Table 4 is shown by the ultimate stress values of shear strength and Table 5 shows the overall mechanical properties of the hybrid fiber.

Figure 14.

Shear strength of the manufactured specimens.

Table 5.

Overall mechanical properties of the hybrid fiber.

Composite sample name	Tensile strength (MPa)	Flexural strength (MPa)	Impact strength (Joules)	Hardness strength (HRL)	Shear strength (MPa)
S1	10	21	0.7	25	5.2
S2	17	29	1.5	38	12.3
S3	24	55	2.8	53	39.2
S4	28	61	3.46	64	68.7
S5	12	47	1.1	42	50.6

Water absorption

Each composite sample’s water absorption rate and dry weight of the composite samples were calculated based on the relative amount of weight gain. Figure 15 represents the graph between the immersion of time in hours and the percentage of water absorption. It is clear that all of the hybrid composite samples quickly absorb water at first, but that their soaking rates thereafter gradually decrease until they approach saturation. After attaining the saturation point the maximum amount of water absorption was obtained by S4 because the PALF and paddy straw fiber is attributed to the hydrophilic nature and due to the addition of woven fiber this sample absorbs more water. A less amount of water absorption has been found for the hybrid composite laminate is 3.80% for the S5 (paddy pulp) sample because the paddy pulp reinforced composite makes it tough for liquid molecules to travel into the layers of the fiber laminates. Generally, the high cellulose content of the fiber absorbs more amount of water molecules.²²

Figure 15.

Water absorption properties of fabricated laminates.

Conclusion

In this investigation, the hybrid fiber composites were successfully fabricated by using compression molding, and studied the mechanical, morphological, and water absorption properties of hybrid fiber-reinforced polyester composites.

The composite test exhibits the maximum strength in the tensile, flexural, impact, hardness, and shear strength is 28 MPa, 61 MPa, 3.46 J, 64 HRL, and 68.7 MPa, respectively, in sample S4. The strength increases gradually because of the addition of the PALF mat added to the paddy straw due to the toughness and hardness of the fiber increased while fabricating the laminate.

It is observed that hybrid composite all mechanical strength is higher than polyester. It also concluded that the 15% PALF (S4 sample) added mat has better mechanical strengths than the other combinations.

The morphological images (SEM) show the failure of the samples like voids, fiber splitting, fiber pull-out, pot holes, interfacial bonding, fiber breakage, and matrix unfilled area.

The lowest amount of water absorption behavior of hybrid fiber polyester composite specimen S5 was recorded at 3.8% with the PALF + paddy pulp + PALF sequence.

The results have exposed that hybrid fiber-reinforced polyester composites can be innovative products and lightweight. It is adaptable for fabricating suitable applications such as furniture items, Switchboard, two-wheeler number plates, study desks, table tops, etc., this will help the farmers to generate revenue from agricultural waste by producing eco-friendly products.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr Krishna Kanth Pulicherla, Scientist, TDT Division, DST, Delhi, India, for their valuable suggestion to do this work, and also the authors wish to express their sincere thanks to E. Devarajan, farmer, Chinnakavanam, Thiruvallur (District), Tamilnadu, India, for the collection of paddy straw fibers.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and publication of this article. This article is supported by the scheme of Innovation, Technology Development and Deployment (1819) of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the Ref no: DST/TDT/WM/2019/78 Consortia (G).

ORCID iD

V Vinoth

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The effect of fiber stacking sequence on mechanical and morphological behavior of paddy straw/pineapple leaf fiber-reinforced ortho-laminated polyester hybrid composites

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Materials and methods

Extraction of fibers

Surface treatment of extracted fibers

Matrix properties

Composite fabrication

Tensile test

Flexural test

Impact test

Hardness test

Shear test

Water absorption test

Results and discussion

Tensile strength

Micrograph inference on tensile tested specimens

Flexural strength

Micrograph inference on flexural tested specimens

Impact strength

Impact-tested specimens using micrograph inference

Hardness test

Shear strength

Water absorption

Conclusion

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

ORCID iD

References