This study investigated the effectiveness of adding four self-efficacy features to an online statistics lesson, based on Bandura’s four sources of self-efficacy information. In a randomized between-subjects experiment, participants learned statistical rules in an example-based online environment with four self-efficacy features added (treatment group) or not (control group). Results of analyses of variance showed that the treatment group performed better on practice (d = 0.36), retention (d = 0.39), and transfer (d = 0.42) tests as well as reporting higher self-efficacy (d = 0.44) and lower task anxiety (d = −0.45). Further, mediation analyses revealed that the effect of treatment group on performance was fully mediated by task anxiety and self-efficacy. The results support the inclusion of self-efficacy features in online mathematics lessons, when the goal is to improve learning outcomes by reducing anxiety and increasing self-efficacy. The results show the utility of applying Bandura’s model of self-efficacy to technology-based learning environments.
AshcraftM. H. (2002) Math anxiety: Personal, educational, and cognitive consequences. Current Directions in Psychological Science11(5): 181–185. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00196.
2.
BanduraA. (1977) Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review84(2): 191–215. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191.
3.
BanduraA. (1986) Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
4.
BanduraA. (1994) Self-efficacy. In: RamachaudranV. S. (ed.) Encyclopedia of human behavior, New York, NY: Academic Press, pp. 71–81.
5.
BanduraA. (1997) Self-efficacy: The exercise of control, New York, NY: Freeman.
6.
BanduraA. (2006) Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In: PajaresF.UrdanT. (eds) Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents, Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing, pp. 307–337.
7.
BartschR. A.CaseK. A.MeermanH. (2012) Increasing academic self-efficacy in statistics with a live vicarious experience presentation. Teaching of Psychology39(2): 133–136. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628312437699.
8.
BetzN. E.HackettG. (1983) The relationship of mathematics self-efficacy expectations to the selection of science-based college majors. Journal of Vocational Behavior23(3): 329–345.
9.
Bonk, C. J., Lee, M., Reeves, T. C., & Reynolds, T. (Eds.). (2015). MOOCs and open education around the world. New York, NY: Routledge.
10.
BraaksmaM. A. H.RijlaarsdamG.Van den BerghH. (2002) Observational learning and the effects of model-observer similarity. Journal of Educational Psychology94(2): 405–415. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.94.2.405.
11.
CarrollW. M. (1995) Increasing mathematics confidence by using worked examples. The Mathematics Teacher88(4): 276–279.
12.
ChemersM. M.HuL.GarciaB. F. (2001) Academic self-efficacy and first year college student performance and adjustment. Journal of Educational Psychology93(1): 55–64. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.93.1.55.
13.
CooperG.Tindall-fordS.ChandlerP.SwellerJ. (2001) Learning by imagining. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied7(1): 68–82. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037//1076-898X.7.1.68.
14.
CorderoE. D.PorterS. H.IsraelT.BrownM. T. (2010) Math and science pursuits: A self- efficacy intervention comparison study. Journal of Career Assessment18(4): 362–375. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072710374572.
15.
CummingJ.RamseyR. (2011) Investigating the effect of model type and practice format on performance expectations and actual physical performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology9(3): 267–283.
16.
DreselM.HaugwitzM. (2008) A computer-based approach to fostering motivation and self-regulated learning. The Journal of Experimental Education77(1): 3–20. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.77.1.3-20.
17.
DriskellJ. E.CopperC.MoranA. (1994) Does mental practice enhance performance?Journal of Applied Psychology79(4): 481–492. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.79.4.481.
18.
DweckC. S. (2007) The perils and promises of praise. Educational Leadership65(2): 34–39.
19.
DweckC. S. (2008) Mindset: The new psychology of success, New York, NY: Random House, Inc.
20.
FeltzD. L.LandersD. M. (1983) The effects of mental practice on motor skill learning and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport Psychology5: 25–57.
HayesA. F. (2013) Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach, New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
23.
HerringtonJ.KervinL. (2007) Authentic learning supported by technology: Ten suggestions and cases of integration in classrooms. Educational Media International44(3): 219–236. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/09523980701491666.
24.
HillC.CorbettC.St. RoseA. (2010) Why so few? Women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, Washington, DC: AAUW.
25.
HoH.SenturkD.LamA. G.ZimmerJ. M. (2000) The affective and cognitive dimensions of math anxiety: A cross-national study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Educstion31(3): 362–379.
26.
HoogerheideV.LoyensS. M. M.van GogT. (2014) Comparing the effects of worked examples and modeling examples on learning. Computers in Human Behavior41: 80–91. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.04.005.
27.
HoogerheideV.van WermeskerkenM.LoyensS. M. M.van GogT. (2016) Learning from video modeling examples: Content kept equal, adults are more effective models than peers. Learning and Instruction44: 22–30. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.02.004.
28.
HuangX. (2017) Example-based learning: Effects of different types of examples on student performance, cognitive load and self-efficacy in a statistical learning task. Interactive Learning Environments25(3): 283–294. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2015.1121154.
29.
HuangX.MayerR. E. (2016) Benefits of adding anxiety-reducing features to a computer-based multimedia lesson on statistics. Computers in Human Behavior63: 293–303. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.034.
30.
ImT. (2012) The effects of emotional support and cognitive motivational messages on math anxiety, self- efficacy, and math problem solving (Doctoral dissertation), Florida State University, Tallahassee.
31.
KaminsM. L.DweckC. S. (1999) Person versus process praise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-worth and coping. Developmental Psychology35(3): 835–847. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.35.3.835.
32.
LeahyW.SwellerJ. (2004) Cognitive load and the imagination effect. Applied Cognitive Psychology18(7): 857–875. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1061.
33.
LeahyW.SwellerJ. (2008) The imagination effect increases with an increased intrinsic cognitive load. Applied Cognitive Psychology283: 273–283. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.
34.
LentR. W.BrownS. D.LarkinK. C. (1986) Self-efficacy in the prediction of academic performance and perceived career options. Journal of Counseling Psychology33: 265–269.
35.
LentR. W.BrownS. D.SheuH.-B.SchmidtJ.GlosterC. S.WilkinsG.TreistmanD. (2005) Social cognitive prediction of academic interest and goals in engineering: Utility for women and students at historically black universities. Journal of Counseling Psychology52: 84–92.
36.
LeopoldC.MayerR. E. (2015) An imagination effect in learning from scientific text. Journal of Educational Psychology107(1): 47–63. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037142.
37.
LeppinkJ.PaasF.Van GogT.Van der VleutenC. P. M.Van MerriënboerJ. J. G. (2014) Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load. Learning and Instruction30: 32–42. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.12.001.
38.
LuzzoD. A.HasperP.AlbertK. A.BibbyM. A.MartinelliE. A. (1999) Effects of self-efficacy-enhancing interventions on the math/science self-efficacy and career Interests, goals, and actions of career undecided college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology46(2): 233–243.
39.
MaloneyE. A.BeilockS. L. (2012) Math anxiety: Who has it, why it develops, and how to guard against it. Trends in Cognitive Sciences16(8): 404–6. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.06.008.
40.
MayerR. E. (2009) Multimedia learning, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
41.
MayerR. E. (2014) The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
42.
MillerD. (2010) Using a three-step method in a Calculus class: Extending the worked example. College Teaching58: 99–104. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1080/87567550903521249.
43.
MillerD. (2014) Participants’ perceptions and experiences with worked examples in calculus. The Mathematics Educator15(2): 77–100.
44.
MuellerC. M.DweckC. S. (1998) Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology75(1): 33–52. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.75.1.33.
45.
OppenheimerD. M.MeyvisT.DavidenkoN. (2009) Instructional manipulation checks: Detecting satisficing to increase statistical power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology45(4): 867–872. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.009.
46.
PajaresF. (1996) Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research66(4): 543–578. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543.
47.
PajaresF.HartleyJ.ValianteG. (2001) Response format in writing self-efficacy assessment: Greater discrimination increases prediction. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development33: 214–221.
48.
PajaresF.KranzlerJ. (1995) Self-efficacy beliefs and general mental ability in mathematical problem-solving. Contemporary Educational Psychology20(4): 426–443. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1995.1029.
49.
PanaderoE. (2017) A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology8: 1–28. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422.
50.
RamdassD.ZimmermanB. J. (2008) Effects of self-correction strategy training on middle school students’ self-efficacy, self- evaluation, and mathematics division learning. Journal of Advanced Academics20(1): 18–41.
51.
RenklA. (2011) Instruction based on examples. In: MayerR. E.AlexanderP. A. (eds) Handbook of research on learning and instruction, New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 272–295.
52.
RenklA. (2014) The worked-example principle in multimedia learning. In: MayerR. E. (ed.) The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 391–412.
53.
RomeroC.MasterA.PauneskuD.DweckC. S.GrossJ. J. (2014) Academic and emotional functioning in middle school: The role of implicit theories. Emotion14(2): 227–234. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1037/a0035490.
54.
SaldenR. J. C. M.KoedingerK. R.RenklA.AlevenV.McLarenB. M. (2010) Accounting for beneficial effects of worked examples in tutored problem solving. Educational Psychology Review22(4): 379–392. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9143-6.
55.
SchunkD. H. (1981) Modeling and attributional effects on children’s achievement: A self-efficacy analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology73: 93–105.
56.
SchunkD. H. (1982) Effects of effort attributional feedback on children’s perceived self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology74: 548–556.
57.
SchunkD. H. (1983) Ability versus effort attributional feedback: Differential effects on self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology75: 848–856.
58.
SchunkD. H. (1984) Sequential attributional feedback and children’s achievement behaviors. Journal of Educational Psychology76: 1159–1169.
59.
SchunkD. H.CoxP. D. (1986) Strategy training and attributional feedback with learning disabled students. Journal of Educational Psychology78: 201–209.
60.
SchunkD. H.DiBenedettoM. K. (2016) Self-efficacy theory in education. In: WentzelK. R.MieleD. B. (eds) Handbook of motivation at school, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 34–54.
61.
SchunkD. H.HansonA. R. (1985) Peer models: Influence on children’s self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology77: 313–322.
62.
SchunkD. H.HansonA. R. (1989) Self-modeling and children’s cognitive skill learning. Journal of Educational Psychology81(2): 155–163.
63.
SchunkD. H.HansonA. R.CoxP. D. (1987) Peer-model attributes and children’s achievement behaviors. Journal of Educational Psychology79: 54–61.
64.
SchweinleA.MeyerD. K.TurnerJ. C. (2006) Striking the right balance: Students’ motivation and affect in elementary mathematics. The Journal of Educational Research99(5): 271–294. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.5.271-294.
65.
ShenE. (2009) The effects of agent emotional support and cognitive motivational messages on math anxiety, learning, and motivation (Doctoral dissertation), Florida State University, Tallahassee.
66.
SwellerJ. (1988) Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science12: 257–285.
67.
SwellerJ. (1994) Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction4(4): 295–312. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-4752(94)90003-5.
68.
SwellerJ.AyresP.KalyugaS. (2011) Cognitive load theory, New York, NY: Springer.
69.
Trafton, J. G., & Reiser, B. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017–1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
70.
UsherE. L. (2009) Sources of middle school students’ self-efficacy in mathematics: A qualitative investigation. American Educational Research Journal46(1): 275–314. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831208324517.
71.
UsherE. L.PajaresF. (2008) Sources of self-efficacy in school: Critical review of the literature and future directions. Review of Educational Research78: 751–796.
72.
UsherE. L.PajaresF. (2009) Sources of self-efficacy in mathematics: A validation study. Contemporary Educational Psychology34(1): 89–101. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.09.002.
73.
Van GogT. (2011) Effects of identical example–problem and problem–example pairs on learning. Computers & Education57(2): 1775–1779. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.03.019.
74.
Van GogT.KesterL.PaasF. (2011) Effects of worked examples, example-problem, and problem-example pairs on novices’ learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology36(3): 212–218. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.004.
75.
Van MeerJ. P.TheunissenN. C. M. (2009) Prospective educational applications of mental simulation: A meta-review. Educational Psychology Review21(2): 93–112. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-009-9097-8.
76.
VeletsianosG. (2010) Contextually relevant pedagogical agents: Visual appearance, stereotypes, and first impressions and their impact on learning. Computers & Education55(2): 576–585.
77.
WigfieldA.MeeceJ. L. (1988) Math anxiety in elementary and secondary school students. Journal of Educational Psychology80(2): 210–216.
78.
ZeldinA. L.BritnerS. L.PajaresF. (2008) A comparative study of the self-efficacy beliefs of successful men and women in mathematics, science, and technology careers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching45(9): 1036–1058. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20195.
79.
ZhuX.SimonH. A. (1987) Learning mathematics from examples and by doing. Cognition and Instruction4(3): 137–166. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0403_1.
