This article introduces and contextualizes four articles in a special series on the use of artificial intelligence (AI) for students with learning disabilities. These four articles explore current issues such as cognitive offloading, AI policies related to learning disabilities, and teaching and learning for students with learning disabilities. This special series aims to provide a broader understanding of AI’s potential, ethical considerations, challenges, and implementation in the field of learning disabilities.
AlmuhannaM. A. (2025). Teachers’ perspectives of integrating AI-powered technologies in K-12 education for creating customized learning materials and resources. Education and Information Technologies, 30(8), 10343–10371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13257-y
2.
Al ZaidyA. (2024). The impact of generative AI on student engagement and ethics in higher education. Journal of Information Technology, Cybersecurity, and Artificial Intelligence, 1(1), 30–38. https://doi.org/10.70715/jitcai.2024.v1.i1.004
3.
Baidoo-AnuD.AnsahL. O. (2023). Education in the era of generative artificial intelligence (AI): Understanding the potential benefits of ChatGPT in promoting teaching and learning. Journal of AI, 7(1), 52–62. http://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4337484
4.
BauerE.GreiffS.GraesserA. C.ScheiterK.SailerM. (2025). Looking beyond the hype: Understanding the effects of AI on learning. Educational Psychology Review, 37, Article 45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-025-10020-8
5.
BressaneA.ZwirnD.EssiptchoukA.SaraivaA. C. V.de Campos CarvalhoF. L.FormigaJ. K. S.de Castro MedeirosL. C.NegriR. G. (2024). Understanding the role of study strategies and learning disabilities on student academic performance to enhance educational approaches: A proposal using artificial intelligence. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 6, Article 100196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100196
6.
CainW. (2024). Prompting change: Exploring prompt engineering in large language model AI and its potential to transform education. TechTrends, 68(1), 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-023-00896-0
7.
CarterR. A.Jr.ZhangL.HuntT. L.EmerlingC. R.YangS.RujimoraJ. (2023). Conversational agents to support remote personalized instruction for diverse learners. TechTrends, 67(4), 626–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-023-00877-3
8.
Center for Applied Special Technology. (2024). CAST Universal Design for Learning guidelines version 3.0. https://udlguidelines.cast.org
9.
ChakrabortyP. P.RayS.NairS. V. (2025). Ethical considerations in deploying AI and data-driven technologies for adaptive education. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 11(Suppl. 23), 8291–8299. https://doi.org/10.64252/cef9cs80
ColemanO. F.WaterfieldD. A. (2026). Ethical AI use in IEP development: A guiding framework. Journal of Special Education Technology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/01626434261419099
12.
de FreitasM. P.PiaiV. A.FariasR. H.FernandesA. M. R.de Moraes RossettoA. G.LeithardtV. R. Q. (2022). Artificial intelligence of things applied to assistive technology: A systematic literature review. Sensors, 22, Article 8531. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218531
13.
Doe v. The Regents of the University of Michigan, No. 2:26‑cv‑10161 (E.D. Mich. filed Jan. 14, 2026).
FarzanaW.SarkerF.ChauT.MamunK. A. (2025). Technological evolvement in AAC modalities to foster communications of verbally challenged ASD children: A systematic review. IEEE Access, 13, 122943–122959. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3055195
16.
FletcherJ. M.LyonG. R.FuchsL. S.BarnesM. A. (2018). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
17.
GerlichM. (2025). AI tools in society: Impacts on cognitive offloading and the future of critical thinking. Societies, 15(1), Article 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15010006
18.
GilbertS. J. (2024). Cognitive offloading is value-based decision making: Modelling cognitive effort and the expected value of memory. Cognition, 247, Article 105783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105783
19.
GoldmanS. R.SmithS.PeytonV.CarreonA.RowlandA.MosherM. (2026). Evaluating the use of ChatGPT in preservice special education 12 courses for creating instructional handouts on disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly. Advance online publication.
20.
GoldmanS. R.TaylorJ.CarreonA.SmithS. J. (2024). Using AI to support special education teacher workload. Journal of Special Education Technology, 39(3), 434–447. https://doi.org/10.1177/01626434241257240
21.
HusseinE.HusseinM.Al-HendawiM. (2025). Investigation into the applications of artificial intelligence (AI) in special education: A literature review. Social Sciences, 14(5), Article 288. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14050288
22.
KaswanK. S.DhatterwalJ. S.OjhaR. P. (2024). AI in personalized learning. In BabuB. V.ValentinaE. B.GargA. (Eds.), Advances in technological innovations in higher education (pp. 103–117). CRC Press.
23.
KimS. J.XinY. P. (2022). A synthesis of computer-assisted mathematical word problem-solving instruction for students with learning disabilities or difficulties. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 20(1), 27–45. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1339497.pdf
24.
KlarM. (2025). Using ChatGPT is easy, using it effectively is tough? A mixed methods study on K-12 students’ perceptions, interaction patterns, and support for learning with generative AI chatbots. Smart Learning Environments, 12(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-025-00385-2
25.
KohliR.PhutelaS.GargA.VinerM. (2021). Artificial intelligence technology to help students with disabilities: Promises and implications for teaching and learning. In SinghA.YehC. J.BlanchardS.AnunciaçãoL. (Eds.), Handbook of research on critical issues in special education for school rehabilitation practices (pp. 238–255). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-7630-4.ch013
26.
LambertJ.StevensM. (2024). ChatGPT and generative AI technology: A Mixed bag of concerns and new opportunities. Computers in the Schools, 41(4), 559–583. https://doi.org/10.1080/07380569.2023.2256710
27.
LuckinR.CukurovaM. (2019). Designing educational technologies in the age of AI: A learning sciences-driven approach. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50, 2824–2838. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12861
28.
MarinoM. T.VasquezE.DiekerL.BashamJ.BlackorbyJ. (2023). The future of artificial intelligence in special education technology. Journal of Special Education Technology, 38(3), 404–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162643423116597
29.
National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2023). Artificial Intelligence Risk Management Framework (AI RMF 1.0)(NIST AI 100-1). U.S. Department of Commerce. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.AI.100-1
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019). OECD principles on artificial intelligence. OECD Publishing. https://oecd.ai/en/ai-principles
32.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2024). Explanatory memorandum on the updated OECD definition of an AI system. OECD AI Policy Observatory. https://doi.org/10.1787/623da898-en
33.
PaglialungaA.MelognoS. (2025). The effectiveness of artificial intelligence-based interventions for students with learning disabilities: A systematic review. Brain Sciences, 15(8), Article 806. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15080806
34.
ParkJ.ChooS. (2025). Generative AI prompt engineering for educators: Practical strategies. Journal of Special Education Technology, 40(3), 411–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/01626434241298954
35.
PerelmutterB.McGregorK. K.GordonK. R. (2017). Assistive technology interventions for adolescents and adults with learning disabilities: An evidence-based systematic review and meta-analysis. Computers & Education, 114, 139–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.005
36.
PriceM. D.SmithR.BengocheaA. (2026). Artificial intelligence to support oral reading fluency assessment in English and Spanish for students with reading disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly. Advance online publication.
SeungY.BashamJ. D. (2026). Cognitive offloading in the age of generative AI: What does it mean for students with learning disabilities?Learning Disability Quarterly. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/07319487261439132
39.
ShinM.BryantD. P. (2015). A synthesis of mathematical and cognitive performances of students with mathematics learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48(1), 96–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219413508324
40.
ShinM.DenizF.WatsonL.DieterichC.EwoldtK. B.JohnsonF.KongJ. E.LeeS. H.WhitehurstA. (2026). Addressing the void of AI policies in education for students with specific learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/07319487251412879
41.
ShinM.ParkJ. (2024). Technology-assisted instruction with teacher prompts on fraction multiplication word problems: A single-case design with visual analysis and Bayesian multilevel modeling. Assistive Technology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400435.2024.2415366
42.
StadlerM.BannertM.SailerM. (2024). Cognitive ease at a cost: LLMs reduce mental effort but compromise depth in student scientific inquiry. Computers in Human Behavior, 160, Article 108386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2024.108386
43.
TapalovaO.ZhiyenbayevaN. (2022). Artificial intelligence in education: AIEd for personalised learning pathways. The Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 20(5), 639–653. https://doi.org/10.34190/ejel.20.5.2597
44.
UlaşR.AdcıB.İlkerÖ. (2025). Artificial intelligence and innovative educational technologies in students with learning disabilities: A systematic review. Journal of Teacher Education & Lifelong Learning (TELL), 7(2), 248–262. https://doi.org/10.51535/tell.1725012
45.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2022). Recommendation on the ethics of artificial intelligence.
46.
U.S. Department of Education. (2022). Advancing digital equity for all: Community-based recommendations for developing effective digital equity plans to close the digital divide and enable technology-empowered learning. Office of Educational Technology, U.S. Department of Education.
47.
U.S. Department of Education. (2023). Artificial intelligence and the future of teaching and learning: Insights and recommendations. Office of Educational Technology, U.S. Department of Education.
48.
WalterY. (2024). Embracing the future of artificial intelligence in the classroom: The relevance of AI literacy, prompt engineering, and critical thinking in modern education. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21, Article15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-024-00448-3
49.
WangM.WangM.XuX.YangL.CaiD.YinM. (2024). Unleashing ChatGPT’s power: A case study on optimizing information retrieval in flipped classrooms via prompt engineering. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 17, 629–641. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2023.3324714
50.
WaterfieldD. A.McDonaldS. D.ColemanO. F.WelkerN. P.KunemundR.KennedyM. J. (2026). Using content acquisition podcasts to teach vocabulary to students with learning disabilities across academic content areas. Intervention in School and Clinic, 61(4), 191–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/10534512251412313
William A. v. Clarksville-Montgomery County School System, 127 F.4th 656 (6th Cir. 2025)
54.
ZafariM.BazarganiJ. S.Sadeghi-NiarakiA.ChoiS.-M. (2022). Artificial intelligence applications in K-12 education: A systematic literature review. IEEE Access, 10, 61905–61921. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3179356
55.
ZdravkovaK.KrasniqiV.DalipiF.FeratiM. (2022). Cutting-edge communication and learning assistive technologies for disabled children: An artificial intelligence perspective. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 5, Article 970430. https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2022.970430
56.
ZhangL.CarterR. A.Jr.BernackiM. L.GreeneJ. A. (2025). Personalization, individualization, and differentiation: What do they mean and how do they differ for students with disabilities?Exceptionality, 33(4), 241–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2024.2446219
