Construction industry is increasingly adopting 3D concrete printing (3DCP) to enhance sustainability, efficiency, and design freedom. This review examines the pivotal role of polymer-enhanced composites in overcoming the inherent limitations of traditional concrete for additive manufacturing. It analyzes the interplay between 3DCP hardware—gantry, robotic, and crane systems—and critical process parameters like pumpability, extrudability, and buildability. The paper provides a detailed analysis of material considerations, emphasizing how cementitious matrices, aggregates, mineral admixtures, fibers, and chemical additives (many polymer-based) are engineered to achieve optimal fresh and hardened properties. Finally, the cutting-edge contribution of nanomaterials in further enhancing these cement-polymer composites is explored, underscoring their ability to improve the performance and application of 3D printed structures. The analysis concludes that the strategic integration of polymers and nanomaterials is not merely additive but transformative, enabling precise control over rheology, enhancing mechanical performance, and improving interlayer adhesion. The future of 3DCP hinges on the continued co-development of such advanced, multi-functional composites to realize fully digital, sustainable, and resilient construction.
BuswellRASoarRCGibbAGF, et al.Freeform construction: mega-Scale rapid manufacturing for construction. Autom ConStruct2007; 16: 224–231.
2.
WuPWangJWangX. A critical review of the use of 3-D printing in the construction industry. Autom ConStruct2016; 68: 21–31.
3.
MechtcherineVNerellaVNWillF, et al.Large-scale digital concrete construction – CONPrint3D concept for on-site, monolithic 3D-printing. Autom ConStruct2019; 107: 102933.
4.
JeonK-HParkM-BKangM-K, et al.Development of an automated freeform construction system and its construction materials. Montreal, Canada2013; 13: 1359–1365.
Lloret-FritschiEWanglerTGebhardL, et al.From smart dynamic casting to a growing family of digital casting systems. Cement Concr Res2020; 134: 106071.
7.
El-SayeghSRomdhaneLManjikianS. A critical review of 3D printing in construction: benefits, challenges, and risks. Arch Civ Mech Eng2020; 20: 34.
8.
GuoNLeuMC. Additive manufacturing: technology, applications and research needs. Front Mech Eng2013; 8: 215–243.
9.
PandaBTanMJGibsonIChuaCK. The disruptive evolution of 3D printing. In: Pro-AM 2016: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Pro-AM Progress in Additive Manufacturing, 1 January, 2016, Research Publishing Singapore; 152–157.
10.
GesellschaftIDeutscher Maschinen- und AnlagenbauVRoboticsIFof (eds). ISR/ROBOTIK 2010: Proceedings for the joint conference of ISR 2010 (41st International Symposium on Robotics) und ROBOTIK 2010 (6th German Conference on Robotics); 7-9 June 2010; parallel to AUTOMATICA. VDE-Verl, 2010.
11.
KhoshnevisBHwangDYaoKT, et al.Mega-scale fabrication by contour crafting. Int J Ind Syst Eng2006; 1: 301.
12.
KhoshnevisB. Automated construction by contour Crafting—Related robotics and information technologies. Autom ConStruct2004; 13: 5–19.
13.
BosFWolfsRAhmedZ, et al.Additive manufacturing of concrete in construction: potentials and challenges of 3D concrete printing. Virtual Phys Prototyp2016; 11: 209–225.
14.
SalariMAkhoundiB. Environmental assessment of 3D printed concrete: potentials and challenges perspectives and opportunities (2013-2023). J. Rehabil. Civ. Eng2025; 14: 2239.
15.
NasirHAhmedHHaasC, et al.An analysis of construction productivity differences between Canada and the United States. Construct Manag Econ2014; 32: 595–607.
16.
BockT. The future of construction automation: technological disruption and the upcoming ubiquity of robotics. Autom ConStruct2015; 59: 113–121.
17.
BetAbram (2018), BetAbram 3D printer, available at: https://betabram.com/ (accessed 28 April 2016)., (n.d.).
18.
WinSun (2018), “WinSun China builds world’s first 3D printed villa and tallest 3D printed apartment building”. Available at: https://www.3ders.org/ (accessed 14 May 2018)., (n.d.).
19.
Concrete Plans (2018), “Concrete plans: cybe’s berry hendriks describes plans to 3D print with mortar”. Available at: https://www.3dprint.com/ (accessed 7 January 2015)., (n.d.).
GosselinCDuballetRRouxP, et al.Large-scale 3D printing of ultra-high performance concrete – a new processing route for architects and builders. Mater Des2016; 100: 102–109.
22.
ZhangXLiMLimJH, et al.Large-scale 3D printing by a team of Mobile robots. Autom ConStruct2018; 95: 98–106.
23.
PuzatovaAShakorPLaghiV, et al.Large-scale 3D printing for construction application by means of robotic arm and gantry 3D printer: a review. Buildings2022; 12: 2023.
ZhuangZ. Structural topology optimisation for additive manufacturing using body-fitted mesh. 2023.
27.
YangJ-MParkI-BLeeH, et al.Effects of nozzle details on print quality and hardened properties of underwater 3D printed concrete. Materials2022; 16: 34.
28.
HopkinsBSiWKhanM, et al.Recent advancements in polypropylene fibre-reinforced 3D-Printed concrete: insights into mix ratios, testing procedures, and material behaviour. J Compos Sci2025; 9: 292.
29.
ChenYChaves FigueiredoSLiZ, et al.Improving printability of limestone-calcined clay-based cementitious materials by using viscosity-modifying admixture. Cement Concr Res2020; 132: 106040.
30.
ZhangCNerellaVNKrishnaA, et al.Mix design concepts for 3D printable concrete: a review. Cem Concr Compos2021; 122: 104155.
31.
SunYZhangXZhouJ, et al.Extrudability analysis of 3D printable concrete as a two-phase discrete flow. J Build Eng2024; 98: 111252.
32.
ChouganMGhaffarSHSikoraP, et al.Investigation of additive incorporation on rheological, microstructural and mechanical properties of 3D printable alkali-activated materials. Mater Des2021; 202: 109574.
33.
HaripanVSenthilnathanSGettuR, et al.Open time and extrudability performance analysis of 3D printed concrete with recycled concrete fine aggregates using rheological and computer vision techniques. Digit. Concr. 2024 - Suppl. Proc2024.
34.
LimSBuswellRALeTT, et al.Developments in construction-scale additive manufacturing processes. Autom ConStruct2012; 21: 262–268.
35.
ChenYZhangLWeiK, et al.Rheology control and shrinkage mitigation of 3D printed geopolymer concrete using nanocellulose and magnesium oxide. Constr Build Mater2024; 429: 136421.
36.
KaszyńskaMHoffmannMSkibickiS, et al.Evaluation of suitability for 3D printing of high performance concretes. MATEC Web Conf2018; 163: 01002.
37.
ChristJLeusinkSKossH. Multi-axial 3D printing of biopolymer-based concrete composites in construction. Mater Des2023; 235: 112410.
38.
FengLiangYuhongLiang. “Study on the Status Quo and Problems of 3D Printed Buildings in China.”Global Journal of Human-Social Science Research 14 (2014): n. pag.
39.
LeTTAustinSALimS, et al.Hardened properties of high-performance printing concrete. Cement Concr Res2012; 42: 558–566.
40.
RicciottiLApicellaAPerrottaV, et al.Geopolymer materials for extrusion-based 3D-Printing: a review. Polymers2023; 15: 4688.
PerrotA (ed). 3D printing of concrete: state of the art and challenges of the digital construction revolution, ISTE Ltd. : Wiley & Sons, London, 2019.
43.
LeTTAustinSALimS, et al.Mix design and fresh properties for high-performance printing concrete. Mater Struct2012; 45: 1221–1232.
44.
RehmanAUKimJ-H. 3D concrete printing: a systematic review of rheology, mix designs, mechanical, microstructural, and durability characteristics. Materials2021; 14: 3800.
45.
KazemianAYuanXCochranE, et al.Cementitious materials for construction-scale 3D printing: laboratory testing of fresh printing mixture. Constr Build Mater2017; 145: 639–647.
46.
WolfsRJMBosFPSaletTAM. Hardened properties of 3D printed concrete: the influence of process parameters on interlayer adhesion. Cement Concr Res2019; 119: 132–140.
47.
BuswellRASoarRCGibbAG, et al.Freeform construction: mega-scale rapid manufacturing for construction. Autom ConStruct2007; 16(2): 224–231.
48.
PerrotARangeardDPierreA. Structural built-up of cement-based materials used for 3D-printing extrusion techniques. Mater Struct2016; 49: 1213–1220.
49.
PofaleADWanjariSP. Study of bond strength between various grade of ordinary portland cement (OPC) and portland pozzolane cement (PPC) mixes and different diameter of TMT bars by using pullout test. Front Struct Civ Eng2013; 7: 39–45.
50.
LyuFZhaoDHouX, et al.Overview of the development of 3D-Printing concrete: a review. Appl Sci2021; 11: 9822.
51.
AhmadSElahiABarbhuiyaS, et al.Repair of cracks in simply supported beams using epoxy injection technique. Mater Struct2013; 46: 1547–1559.
52.
BidiLLe MassonPCicalaE, et al.Experimental design method to the weld bead geometry optimization for hybrid laser-MAG welding in a narrow chamfer configuration. Opt Laser Technol2017; 89: 114–125.
53.
Da PortoFStievaninEPellegrinoC. Efficiency of RC square columns repaired with polymer-modified cementitious mortars. Cem Concr Compos2012; 34: 545–555.
54.
ShakorPSanjayanJNazariA, et al.Modified 3D printed powder to cement-based material and mechanical properties of cement scaffold used in 3D printing. Constr Build Mater2017; 138: 398–409.
55.
MaGLiZWangL. Printable properties of cementitious material containing copper tailings for extrusion based 3D printing. Constr Build Mater2018; 162: 613–627.
56.
HambachMVolkmerD. Properties of 3D-printed fiber-reinforced Portland cement paste. Cem Concr Compos2017; 79: 62–70.
57.
ZhangWZakariaMHamaY. Influence of aggregate materials characteristics on the drying shrinkage properties of mortar and concrete. Constr Build Mater2013; 49: 500–510.
58.
KaszyńskaMSkibickiS. Sustainable development approach for 3D concrete printing. In: CzarneckiLGarbaczAWangR, et al. (eds). Concr.-Polym. Compos. Circ. Econ. Springer Nature Switzerland, 2025, pp. 565–576.
59.
MaroszekMRudziewiczMHebdaM. Recycled components in 3D concrete printing mixes: a review. A Review, Materials2025; 18: 4517.
60.
AnDZhangYXYangRC. Incorporating coarse aggregates into 3D concrete printing from mixture design and process control to structural behaviours and practical applications: a review. Virtual Phys Prototyp2024; 19: e2351154.
61.
InozemtcevAKorolevEQuiDT. Study of mineral additives for cement materials for 3D-printing in construction. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng2018; 365: 032009.
62.
HassanKECabreraJGMalieheRS. The effect of mineral admixtures on the properties of high-performance concrete. Cem Concr Compos2000; 22: 267–271.
63.
LiuYJingRYanP. Effects of mineral admixtures on the evolution of static yield stress of different composite pastes. Processes2023; 11: 614.
64.
SlavchevaGS. Drying and shrinkage of cement paste for 3D printable concrete. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng2019; 481: 012043.
65.
ArunothayanARNematollahiBRanadeRBongSHSanjayanJ. Development of 3D-printable ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concrete for digital construction. Construction and Building Materials. 2020 Oct 10;257:119546.
66.
DiasJBrandãoFFigueiredoB, et al.The potential of natural fiber reinforcement in 3D printed concrete: a review. Digit. Concr. 2024 - Suppl. Proc2024; 9: e15023.
67.
LiLGXiaoBKouS. Influences of fiber length on the printability and strength of glass fiber-reinforced 3D-Printed mortar. J. Intell. Constr2025; 3: 1–14.
68.
DvorkinLKonkolJMarchukV, et al.Effectiveness of polymer additives in concrete for 3D concrete printing using fly ash. Polymers2022; 14: 5467.
69.
TarhanYAtalayB. Phosphogypsum and borogypsum as additives for sustainable and high-performance 3D-Printable concrete. Polymers2025; 17: 2530.
70.
SikoraPChouganMCuevasK, et al.The effects of nano- and micro-sized additives on 3D printable cementitious and alkali-activated composites: a review. Appl Nanosci2022; 12: 805–823.
71.
TobónJIMendoza RealesORestrepoOJ, et al.Effect of pyrogenic silica and nanosilica on Portland cement matrices. J Mater Civ Eng2018; 30: 04018266.
72.
LiuZLiMMooGSJ, et al.Effect of nanostructured silica additives on the extrusion-based 3D concrete printing application. J Compos Sci2023; 7: 191.
73.
SikoraPChungS-YLiardM, et al.The effects of nanosilica on the fresh and hardened properties of 3D printable mortars. Constr Build Mater2021; 281: 122574.
74.
SiWKhanMMcNallyC. Effect of nano silica with high replacement of GGBS on enhancing mechanical properties and rheology of 3D printed concrete. Results Eng2025; 27: 106680.
75.
ChoSKrugerJAZerankaSTVan RooyenAvan ZijlGP. Mechanical evaluation of 3D printable nano-silica incorporated fibre-reinforced lightweight foam concrete. InProceedings of the 10th International Conference on Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures 2019 Jun 19.
76.
BehniaBSafardoust-HojaghanHAmiriO, et al.High-performance cement mortars-based composites with colloidal nano-silica: synthesis, characterization and mechanical properties. Arab J Chem2021; 14: 103338.
77.
Mendoza RealesOADudaPSilvaECCM, et al.Nanosilica particles as structural buildup agents for 3D printing with Portland cement pastes. Constr Build Mater2019; 219: 91–100.
78.
LiuCSuXWuY, et al.Effect of nano-silica as cementitious materials-reducing admixtures on the workability, mechanical properties and durability of concrete. Nanotechnol Rev2021; 10: 1395–1409.
79.
ŞahinHGMardaniABeytekinHE. Effect of silica fume utilization on structural build-up, mechanical and dimensional stability performance of fiber-reinforced 3D printable concrete. Polymers2024; 16: 556.
80.
ThajeelMMKopecskóKBalázsGL. Enhancing printability of 3D printed concrete by using metakaolin and silica fume. Struct Concr2025; 25: suco.70119.
81.
Ruiz MartínezJDRíosJDPérez-SorianoEM, et al.Effect of nano silicon nitride on the microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of ultra-high-performance steel fiber reinforced concrete. Mater Struct2025; 58: 103.
82.
SamraniPCaoYFimbres-WeihsG, et al.Effect of fly ash and ground waste glass as cement replacement in concrete 3D-Printing for sustainable construction. Front Built Environ2024; 10: 1430174.
83.
RubioMSonebiMAmzianeSPerrotA. Mechanical properties of 3D bio-printing cement-based materials. Academic Journal of Civil Engineering. 2019 Jun 26;37(2):256-61.
84.
LiuQJiangQZhouZ, et al.The printable and hardened properties of nano-calcium carbonate with modified polypropylene fibers for cement-based 3D printing. Constr Build Mater2023; 369: 130594.
85.
PandaBNoor MohamedNAPaulSC, et al.The effect of material fresh properties and process parameters on buildability and interlayer adhesion of 3D printed concrete. Materials2019; 12: 2149.
86.
SalahHAMutalibAAKaishABMA, et al.Development of ultra-high-performance silica fume-based mortar incorporating graphene nanoplatelets for 3-Dimensional concrete printing application. Buildings2023; 13: 1949.
87.
AboelenanAAlgouzMSalehN, et al.3D-printing of polylactic acid/nano silica filament: properties and applications. Res J2023; 1: 32–41.
88.
ManojGThirugnanasambandamS. Experimental investigations on nano silica concrete. E3S Web Conf2024; 559: 04046.
89.
ReddyANReddyGGKReddyPNReddyKSKavyatejaBVReddyKSKavyatejaBV. Analyzing the impact of nano-sized silica on composite concrete: a static approach utilizing response surface method. Res Eng Struct Mat2024; 15: 165–178.
90.
PoudyalLAdhikariKWonM. Nano calcium carbonate (CaCO3) as a reliable, durable, and environment-friendly alternative to diminishing fly ash. Materials2021; 14: 3729.
91.
GolewskiGL. Mechanical properties and brittleness of concrete made by combined fly ash, silica fume and nanosilica with ordinary Portland cement. AIMS Mater Sci2023; 10: 390–404.
92.
SabaMGarcía-DíazYTorres OrtegaR, et al.Combined effect of nano-silica and silica fume to improve concrete workability and compressive strength: a case study and an overview of the literature. n/a, Ing. Compet2022; 25: 12201.
93.
Mushtaq AhmedMManjula VaniDK, 2022, Synergistic effect of micro silica and nano silica on packing properties of cement matrix, Int J Eng Res Technol; 11(11): e03443.
94.
G HamadA. Improve concrete properties with nano silica. Scientific Research Journal of Engineering and Computer Sciences2024; 4(2): 1–8.
95.
Department of Civil Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, IndiaSadedMFUddinKR. Department of civil engineering, andhra university, visakhapatnam, India, experimental investigation and numerical modelling of concrete with the optimum percentage of colloidal nano silica. Res. Eng. Struct. Mater2025; 11: 0530.
96.
YuRSpieszPBrouwersHJH. Effect of nano-silica on the hydration and microstructure development of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) with a low binder amount. Constr Build Mater2014; 65: 140–150.
97.
AlkhatebHAl-OstazAChengAH-D, et al.Materials genome for graphene-cement nanocomposites. J Nanomech Micromech2013; 3: 67–77.
98.
NassrullahGAliMMAbu Al-RubRK, et al.Optimizing cement-based material formulation for 3D printing: integrating carbon nanotubes and silica fume. Case Stud Constr Mater2025; 22: e04579.
99.
Razzaghian GhadikolaeeMCerro-PradaEPanZ, et al.Nanomaterials as promising additives for high-performance 3D-Printed concrete: a critical review. Nanomaterials2023; 13: 1440.
100.
KaciAChaoucheMAndréaniPA. Influence of bentonite clay on the rheological behaviour of fresh mortars. Cement Concr Res2011; 41: 373–379.
101.
ZhaoZChenMZhongX, et al.Effects of bentonite, diatomite and metakaolin on the rheological behavior of 3D printed magnesium potassium phosphate cement composites. Addit Manuf2021; 46: 102184.
102.
AydinEMKaraBBundurZB, et al.A comparative evaluation of sepiolite and nano-montmorillonite on the rheology of cementitious materials for 3D printing. Constr Build Mater2022; 350: 128935.
103.
De MatosPZatTCorazzaK, et al.Effect of TiO2 nanoparticles on the fresh performance of 3D-Printed cementitious materials. Materials2022; 15: 3896.
104.
GarcesJITDollenteIJBeltranAB, et al.Life cycle assessment of self-healing geopolymer concrete. Clean Eng Technol2021; 4: 100147.
105.
MohammadMMasadEAl-GhamdiSG. 3D concrete printing sustainability: a comparative life cycle assessment of four construction method scenarios. Buildings2020; 10: 245.
106.
SambucciMBibliotecaIValenteM. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of 3D concrete printing and casting processes for cementitious materials incorporating ground waste tire rubber. Recycling2023; 8: 15.
107.
JamjalaSThulasirangan LakshmideviMReddyKSKK, et al.A critical review on synergistic integration of nanomaterials in 3D-Printed concrete: rheology to microstructure and eco-functionality. Appl Sci2025; 15: 11267.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
