Despite the persistence of wage gaps and other indicators of discrimination, many Americans oppose affirmative action for women. Our study investigated a potential source of social influence that has often been hypothesized to reduce compassion and sympathy for women: pornography. National panel data were employed. Data were gathered in 2006, 2008, and 2010 from 190 adults ranging in age from 19 to 88 at baseline. Pornography viewing was indexed via reported consumption of pornographic movies. Attitudes toward affirmative action were indexed via opposition to hiring and promotion practices that favor women. Contrary to a selective-exposure perspective on media use, prior opposition to affirmative action did not predict subsequent pornography viewing. Consistent with a social learning perspective on media effects, prior pornography viewing predicted subsequent opposition to affirmative action even after controlling for prior affirmative action attitudes and a number of other potential confounds. Gender did not moderate this association. Practically, these results suggest that pornography may be a social influence that undermines support for affirmative action programs for women. Theoretically, these results align with the perspective that sexual media activate abstract scripts for social behavior which may be applied to judgments that extend beyond the specific interaction patterns depicted.
AbersonC. L.HaagS. C. (2003). Beliefs about affirmative action and diversity and their relationship to support for hiring policies. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 3, 121–138. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2003.00018.x
2.
AllenM.D’AlessioD.EmmersT.GebhardtL. (1996). The role of educational debriefings in mitigating effects of experimental exposure to violent sexually explicit materials: A meta-analysis. TheJournal of Sex Research, 33, 135–141.
3.
BanduraA. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3, 265–299. doi:10.1207/S1532785XMEP0303_03
4.
BarronM.KimmelM. (2000). Sexual violence in three pornographic media: Towards a sociological explanation. The Journal of Sex Research, 37, 161–168.
5.
BaunachD. M. (2002). Progress, opportunity, and backlash: Explaining attitudes toward gender-based affirmative action. Sociological Focus, 35, 345–362. doi:10.1080/00380237.2002.10570708
6.
BerkowitzL.RogersK. H. (1986). A priming effect analysis of media influence. In BryantJ.ZillmannD. (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 57–81). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
7.
Braun-CourvilleD. K.RojasM. (2009). Exposure to sexually explicit web sites and adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 156–162. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.12.004
8.
BridgesA. J.WosnitzerR.ScharrerE.SunC.LibermanR. (2010). Aggression and sexual behavior in best-selling pornography videos: A content analysis update. Violence Against Women, 16, 1065–1085. doi:10.1177/1077801210382866
9.
BrosiM. W.FoubertJ. D.BannonR. S.YandellG. (2011). Effects of sorority members’ pornography use on bystander intervention in a sexual assault situation and rape myth acceptance. Oracle, 6, 26–35. doi:10.1353/csd.2011.0002
10.
BrownJ. D.L’EngleK. L. (2009). X-Rated: Sexual attitude and behaviors associated with U.S. early adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit media. Communication Research, 36, 129–151. doi:10.1177/0093650208326465
11.
BurtM. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217–230. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.217
12.
BushmanB. J.AndersonC. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public. American Psychologist, 56, 477–489. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.3.252
13.
BuzzellT. (2005). Demographic characteristics of persons using pornography in three technological contexts. Sexuality & Culture, 9, 28–48. doi:10.1007/BF02908761
14.
CaseK. A. (2007). Raising male privilege awareness and reducing sexism: An evaluation of diversity courses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 426–435. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00391.x
15.
CochranJ. K.SandersB. A. (2009). The gender gap in death penalty support. Journal of Criminal Justice, 37, 525–533. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.09.001
16.
CowanG.CampbellR. R. (1994). Racism and sexism in interracial pornography. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 323–338. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00459.x
D’AlessioD.AllenM. (2007). The selective exposure hypothesis and media choice processes. In PreissR. W.GayleB. M.BurrellN.AllenM.BryantJ. (Eds.), Mass media effects research (pp. 103–118). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.
19.
DavisJ. A.SmithT. W. (2010). General social surveys, 1972-2008. Chicago, IL: National Opinion Research Center.
20.
DinesG.JensenR.RussoA. (1998). Pornography: The production and consumption of inequality. New York, NY: Routledge.
21.
FergusonC. J.HartleyR. D. (2009). The pleasure is momentary … the expense damnable? The influence of pornography on rape and sexual assault. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 323–329. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.04.008
22.
FoubertJ. D.BrosiM. W.BannonR. S. (2011). Pornography viewing among fraternity men: Effects on bystander intervention, rape myth acceptance and behavioral intention to commit sexual assault. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 18, 212–231. doi:10.1080/10720162.2011.625552
23.
GarciaL. (1986). Exposure to pornography and attitudes about women and rape: A correlational study. Journal of Sex Research, 22, 378–385. doi:10.1080/00224498609551316
24.
GerbnerG.GrossL.MorganM.SignorielliN. (1994). Growing up with television: The cultivation perspective. In BryantJ.ZillmannD. (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 17–41). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
25.
GoldeJ. A.StrassbergD. S.TurnerC. M.LoweK. (2000). Attitudinal effects of degrading themes and sexual explicitness in video materials. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 12, 223–232. doi:10.1023/A:1009538210065
26.
GrauerholzE.KingA. (1997). Primetime sexual harassment. Violence Against Women, 3, 129–146. doi:10.1177/1077801297003002003
GunterB. (2002). Media sex. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
30.
HaldG. M.MalamuthN.YuenC. (2010). Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: Revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies. Aggressive Behavior, 36, 14–20. doi:10.1002/ab.20328
31.
HarrisonD. A.KravitzD. A.MayerD. M.LeslieL. M.Lev-AreyD. (2006). Understanding attitudes toward affirmative action programs in employment: Summary and meta-analysis of 35 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1013–1036. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1013
32.
HeilmanM. E.Parks-StammE. J. (2007). Gender stereotypes in the workplace: Obstacles to women’s career progress. In CorrellS. J. (Ed.), Social psychology of gender: Advances in group processes (pp. 47–78). Bingley, England: Emerald Group Publishing.
33.
HuesmannL. R. (1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 125–139. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1986.tb00246.x
34.
JacobsonC. K. (1998). Religiosity and prejudice: An update and denominational analysis. Review of Religious Research, 39, 264–272.
35.
JansmaL. L.LinzD. G.MulacA.ImrichD. J. (1997). Men’s interactions with women after viewing sexually explicit films: Does degradation make a difference?Communication Monographs, 64, 1–24. doi:10.1080/03637759709376402
36.
JensenR. (2007). Pornography and the end of masculinity. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
37.
KjellgrenC.PriebeG.SvedinC., & Langstrom. (2010). Sexually coercive behavior in male youth: Population survey of general and specific risk factors. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 1161–1169. doi:10.1177/1077559510367937
38.
KlinebergS. L.KravitzD. A. (2003). Ethnic differences in predictors of support for municipal affirmative action contracting. Social Science Quarterly, 84, 425–440. doi:10.1111/1540-6237.8402013
39.
KravitzD. A.PlataniaJ. (1993). Attitudes and beliefs about affirmative action: Effects of target and of respondent sex and ethnicity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 928–938. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.6.928
40.
LinzD.DonnersteinE.PenrodS. (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 758–768. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.758
41.
LinzD.MalamuthN. (1993). Pornography. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
42.
LittleT. D.CardN. A.PreacherK. J.McConnellE. (2009). Modeling longitudinal data from research on adolescence. In LernerR. M.SteinbergL. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (3rd ed., pp. 15–54). New York, NY: John Wiley.
43.
LoV. H.WeiR. (2005). Exposure to internet pornography and Taiwanese adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behavior. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 49, 221–237. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4902_5
44.
LoughnanS.PinaA.VasquezE. A.PuviaE. (2013). Sexual objectification increases rape victim blame and decreases perceived suffering. Psychology of Women Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0361684313485718
45.
LovenduskiJ.NorrisP. (2003). Westminster women: The politics of presence. Political Studies, 51, 84–102. doi:10.1111/1467-9248.00414
46.
MalamuthN.CheckJ. (1985). The effects of aggressive pornography on belief in rape myths: Individual differences. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 299–320. doi:10.1016/0092-6566(85)90021-2
47.
MalamuthN. M.HaldG. M.KossM. (2012). Pornography, individual differences in risk and men’s acceptance of violence against women in a representative sample. Sex Roles, 66, 427–439. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0082-6
48.
MayersonS. E.TaylorD. A. (1987). The effects of rape myth pornography on women’s attitudes and the mediating role of sex role stereotyping. Sex Roles, 17, 321–338. doi:10.1007/BF00288456
49.
McKenzie-MohrD.ZannaM. P. (1990). Treating women as sexual objects: Look to the (gender schematic) male who has viewed pornography. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 296–308. doi:10.1177/0146167290162010
50.
MertlerC. A.VannattaR. A. (2002). Advanced and multivariate statistical methods. Los Angeles, CA: Pyrczak.
51.
Monk-TurnerE.PurcellH. C. (1999). Sexual violence in pornography: How prevalent is it?Gender Issues, 17, 58–67. doi:10.1007/s12147-999-0015-7
52.
MoyP.DomkeD.StammK. (2001). The spiral of silence and public opinion on affirmative action. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 78, 7–25. doi:10.1177/107769900107800102
53.
MulacA.JansmaL. L.LinzD. G. (2002). Men’s behavior toward women after viewing sexually-explicit films: Degradation makes a difference. Communication Monographs, 69, 311–328. doi:10.1080/03637750216544
54.
MundorfN.AllenM.D’AlessioD.Emmers-SommerT. M. (2007). Effects of sexually explicit media. In PreissR.W.GayleB. M.BurrellN.AllenM.BryantJ. (Eds.), Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 181–198). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.
NewtonR. R.RudestamK. E. (1999). Your statistical consultant. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
57.
OmoriK.ZhangY. B.AllenM.OtaH.ImamuraM. (2011). Japanese college students’ media exposure to sexually explicit materials, perceptions of women, and sexually permissive attitudes. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 40, 93–110. doi:10.1080/17475759.2011.581031
58.
PadgettV. R.Brislin-SlützJ. A.NealJ. A. (1989). Pornography, erotica, and attitudes toward women: The effects of repeated exposure. Journal of Sex Research, 26, 479–491.doi:10.1080/00224498909551529
PerseE. M. (1994). Uses of erotica and acceptance of rape myths. Communication Research, 21, 488–515. doi:10.1177/009365094021004003
61.
PeterJ.ValkenburgP. M. (2007). Adolescents’ exposure to a sexualized media environment and their notions of women as sex objects. Sex Roles, 56, 381–395. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9176-y
62.
PeterJ.ValkenburgP. M. (2008). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internet material and sexual preoccupancy: A three-wave panel study. Media Psychology, 11, 207–234. doi:10.1080/15213260801994238
63.
PeterJ.ValkenburgP. M. (2009). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internet material and notions of women as sex objects: Assessing causality and underlying processes. Journal of Communication, 59, 407–433. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9176-y
64.
PeterJ.ValkenburgP. M. (2010). Processes underlying the effects of adolescents’ use of sexually explicit internet material: The role of perceived realism. Communication Research, 37, 375–399. doi:10.1177/0093650210362464
65.
PeterJ.ValkenburgP. M. (2011a). The influence of sexually explicit internet material and peers on stereotypical beliefs about women’s sexual roles: Similarities and differences between adolescents and adults. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 511–517. doi:10.1089/cyber.2010.0189
66.
PeterJ.ValkenburgP. M. (2011b). The influence of sexually explicit internet material on sexual risk behavior: A comparison of adolescents and adults. Journal of Health Communication, 16, 750–765. doi:10.1080/10810730.2011.551996
67.
RubinA. M. (2002). The uses-and-gratifications perspective on media effects. In BryantJ.ZillmannD. (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 525–548). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
68.
RubinA. M.WindahlS. (1986). The uses and dependency model of mass communication. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 3, 184–189. doi:10.1080/15295039609366643
69.
RudmanL. A.BorgidaE. (1995). The afterglow of construct accessibility: The behavioral consequences of priming men to view women as sexual objects. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 493–517. doi:10.1006/jesp.1995.1022
70.
SarracinoC.ScottK. M. (2008). The porning of America. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
71.
StevensJ. (1992). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
72.
SunC.BridgesA.WosnitzerR.ScharrerE.LibermanR. (2008). A comparison of male and female directors in popular pornography: What happens when women are at the helm?Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 312–325. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00439.x
VaiseyS. (2006). Education and its discontents: Overqualification in America, 1972-2002. Social Forces, 85, 835–864. doi:10.1353/sof.2007.0028
76.
WardL. M. (2003). Understanding the role of entertainment media in the sexual socialization of American youth: A review of empirical research. Developmental Review, 23, 347–388. doi:10.1016/S0273-2297(03)00013-3
77.
WingoodG. M.DiClementeR. J.HarringtonK.DaviesS.HookE. W.OhM. K. (2001). Exposure to x-rated movies and adolescents’ sexual and contraceptive-related attitudes and behaviors. Pediatrics, 107, 1116–1119. doi:10.1542/peds.107.5.1116
78.
WinickC.EvansJ. T. (1994). Is there a national standard with respect to attitudes toward sexually explicit media material?Archives of Sexual Behavior, 23, 405–419. doi:10.1007/BF01541406
79.
WrightP. J. (2009). Sexual socialization messages in mainstream entertainment mass media: A review and synthesis. Sexuality & Culture, 13, 181–200. doi:10.1007/s12119-009-9050-5
80.
WrightP. J. (2011). Mass media effects on youth sexual behavior: Assessing the claim for causality. Communication Yearbook, 35, 343–386.
81.
WrightP. J. (2012a). Show me the data! Empirical support for the “Centerfold Syndrome.” Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 13, 180–198. doi:10.1037/a0023783
82.
WrightP. J. (2012b). A longitudinal analysis of U.S. adults’ pornography exposure: Sexual socialization, selective exposure, and the moderating role of unhappiness. Journal of Media Psychology, 24, 67–76. doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000063
83.
WrightP. J. (2013a). U.S. males and pornography, 1973-2010: Consumption, predictors, correlates. Journal of Sex Research, 50, 60–71. doi:10.1080/00224499.2011.628132
84.
WrightP. J. (2013b). A three-wave longitudinal analysis of preexisting beliefs, exposure to pornography, and attitude change. Communication Reports, 26, 13–25.doi:10.1080/08934215.2013.773053
85.
WrightP. J. (in press). Violent content in pornography. In EastinM.AndersonC. A.GreenburgB. S.MastroD.TamboriniR. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of media violence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
86.
WrightP. J.BaeS.FunkM. (2013). United States women and pornography through four decades: Exposure, attitudes, behaviors, individual differences. Archives of Sexual Behavior. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0116-y
87.
WrightP. J.MalamuthN.DonnersteinE. (2012). Research on sex in the media: What do we know about effects on children and adolescents? In SingerD. G.SingerJ. L. (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 273–302). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
88.
WrightP. J.RandallA. K. (2012). Internet pornography exposure and risky sexual behavior among adult males in the United States. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 1410–1416. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.03.003
89.
WrightP. J.RandallA. K. (2013). Pornography consumption, education, and support for same-sex marriage among adult U.S. males. Communication Research. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0093650212471558
90.
WyerR. S.BodenhausenG. V.GormanT. F. (1985). Cognitive mediators of reactions to rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 324–338. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.48.2.324
91.
YbarraM. L.MitchellK.HamburgerM.Diener-WestM.LeafP. (2011). X-rated material and perpetration of sexually aggressive behavior among children and adolescents: Is there a link?Aggressive Behavior, 37, 1–18. doi:10.1002/ab.20367
92.
ZillmannD.BryantJ. (1982). Pornography, sexual callousness, and the trivialization of ape. Journal of Communication, 32, 10–21. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1982.tb02514.x
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
