Offshore wind energy is rapidly becoming a cornerstone of the global transition to renewable energy, offering significant potential for large-scale, sustainable electricity generation. This comprehensive review critically examines the technical, infrastructural, and policy dimensions of offshore wind development, with a focused lens on India’s nascent sector. It explores key components such as turbine foundation systems, generator classifications (SCIG, DFIG, and PMSG), and transmission mechanisms (HVAC and HVDC), alongside issues of grid stability and integration. The study further investigates the integration of energy storage systems to address intermittency and enhance grid reliability. Drawing on global case studies, particularly from Europe and China, the paper highlights India’s coastal potential estimated at over 70 GW and outlines strategic recommendations aligned with its socio-economic and regulatory context. The analysis emphasizes the importance of tailored frameworks to facilitate cost-effective and scalable offshore wind deployment in India.
AbdellatifWSEElsakaanAAEBarakatAF, et al. (2022) A Comparative Performance Analysis of DFIG and PMSG-Based WECS. In: 2022 23rd International Middle East Power Systems Conference, MEPCON 2022. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/MEPCON55441.2022.10021738
2.
AlwazaniHBahanshalSKumarCR, et al. (2019) Economic and technical feasibility of solar system at Effat university. In: 2019 IEEE 10th GCC Conference and Exhibition, GCC 2019. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/GCC45510.2019.1570520280
3.
RuddyJMeereRO’DonnellT (2021) Low Frequency AC Transmission for Offshore Wind Power. International Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering Research9(8): 75. Available at: https://doi.org/10.30534/ijeter/2021/24982021
4.
BadgerMBadgerJNielsenM, et al. (2010) Wind class sampling of satellite SAR imagery for offshore wind resource mapping. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology49(12): 2474–2491, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC2523.1
5.
BastiaRRadhakrishnaM (2012) Exploration in the Indian Offshore Basins-Some Challenging Issues Related to Imaging and Drilling. Developments in Petroleum Science. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53604-4.00007-7
6.
BenissMAEl MoussaouiHLamhamdiT, et al. (2021) Performance analysis and enhancement of direct power control of dfig based wind system. International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems12(2): 1034. Available at: https://doi.org/10.11591/ijpeds.v12.i2.pp1034-1044
7.
BhattacharyaS (2014) Challenges in Design of Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbines. Engineering & Technology Reference, [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1049/etr.2014.0041
8.
BidadfarASaborío-RomanoONaidu SakamuriJ, et al. (2019) Coordinated control of HVDC and HVAC power transmission systems integrating a large offshore wind farm. Energies12(18): 3435, Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/en12183435
9.
BozhkoSVBlasco-GimnezRLiR, et al. (2007) Control of offshore DFIG-based wind farm grid with line-commutated HVDC connection. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion22(1): 71–78. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/TEC.2006.889544
10.
BresestiPKlingWLHendriksRL, et al. (2007) HVDC connection of offshore wind farms to the transmission system. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion22(1): 37–43. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/TEC.2006.889624
11.
CardozoCvan AckooijWCapelyL (2018) Cutting plane approaches for frequency constrained economic dispatch problems. Electric Power Systems Research156: 54–63. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2017.11.001
12.
ChalvatzisKJIoannidisA (2017) Energy supply security in the EU: Benchmarking diversity and dependence of primary energy. Applied Energy207: 465–476. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.07.010
13.
ChaudharySKTeodorescuRRodriguezP (2009) Wind Farm Grid Integration Using VSC Based HVDC Transmission - An Overview. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/energy.2008.4781061
14.
ChouCJWuYKHanGY, et al. (2011) Comparative evaluation of the HVDC and HVAC links integrated in a large offshore wind farm - An actual case study in Taiwan. In: Conference Record - IAS Annual Meeting. IEEE Industry Applications Society. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/IAS.2011.6074397
15.
ClémençonR (2016) The Two Sides of the Paris Climate Agreement: Dismal Failure or Historic Breakthrough?The Journal of Environment & Development, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1070496516631362
16.
CodeG (2006) High and extra high voltage. ON Netz GmbH Tech. Rep [Preprint], (April).
17.
Corrêa Da SilvaRDe Marchi NetoISilva SeifertS (2016) Electricity supply security and the future role of renewable energy sources in Brazil. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.001
18.
CreutzigFAgostonPGoldschmidtJC, et al. (2017) The underestimated potential of solar energy to mitigate climate change. Nature Energy2: 17140. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2017.140
19.
CrippaMOreggioniGGuizzardiD, et al. (2019) Fossil CO2 and GHG emissions of all world countries - 2019 Report Publications Office of the EU, JRC Science for Policy Report.
20.
DaiJYangXWenL (2018) Development of wind power industry in China: A comprehensive assessment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews97: 156–164. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.08.044
21.
DaoudAAAbouzeidAFDessoukySS (2021) Offshore wind power integration to support weak grid voltage for industrial loads using VSC-HVDC transmission system. International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering11(3): 1876. Available at: https://doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v11i3.pp1876-1885
22.
DasCKBassOKothapalliG, et al. (2018) Overview of energy storage systems in distribution networks: Placement, sizing, operation, and power quality. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews91: 1205–1230, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.068
23.
De BarbosaLSNSBogdanovDVainikkaP, et al. (2017) Hydro, wind and solar power as a base for a 100% renewable energy supply for South and Central America. PLoS One12(3): e0173820, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173820
24.
DelilleGFrançoisBMalarangeG (2012) Dynamic frequency control support by energy storage to reduce the impact of wind and solar generation on isolated power system’s inertia. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy3(4): 931, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/TSTE.2012.2205025
25.
DreidyMMokhlisHMekhilefS (2017) Inertia response and frequency control techniques for renewable energy sources: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews69: 144–155, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.170
Electrical Power Engineering Handbook (2005) Electrical power engineering handbook [Book Review]. IEEE Power Engineering Review, 21(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/mper.2001.893347
29.
ErlichIRenschKShewaregaF (2006) Impact of large wind power generation on frequency stability. In: 2006 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, PES. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/pes.2006.1709516
30.
ErlichIShewaregaFFeltesC, et al. (2013) Offshore wind power generation technologies. Proceedings of the IEEE101(4): 891–905, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2012.2225591
31.
FalknerR (2016) The Paris agreement and the new logic of international climate politics. International Affairs92(5): 1107–1125, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12708
32.
Fernández-GuillamónAGomez-LazaroEMuljadiE, et al. (2019a) Power systems with high renewable energy sources: A review of inertia and frequency control strategies over time. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109369
33.
Fernández-GuillamónAVigueras-RodríguezAMolina-GarcíaÁ, et al. (2019b) Analysis of power system inertia estimation in high wind power plant integration scenarios. IET Renewable Power Generation13(15): 2807-2816, Available at:https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2019.0220
34.
Fernandez-GuillamonAVillena-LapazJVigueras-RodríguezA, et al. (2018) An adaptive frequency strategy for variable speed wind turbines: Application to high wind integration into power systems. Energies11(6): 1436, Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/en11061436
35.
GaschRTweleJ (2012) Wind power plants: Fundamentals, design, construction and operation. 2nd edition. Springer. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22938-1
36.
GiebelGHasagerCB (2016) An overview of offshore wind farm design. In: MARE-WINT: New Materials and Reliability in Offshore Wind Turbine Technology. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-39095-6_19
37.
GuanSDenesSL (2022) Acoustic impact studies and assessments by Bureau of Ocean Energy Management on offshore wind development. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America151(4_Supplement): A238–A239, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0011184
38.
GWEC (2023) Global Wind Report 2023| GWEC. Gwec[Preprint].
39.
HansenLHHelleLBlaabjergF, et al. (2001) Conceptual survey of Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines, Risø-R-1205(EN).
40.
HigginsPFoleyAM (2015) Power system performance of offshore wind in the UK in 2030. Renewable Energy in the Service of Mankind. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17777-9_73
41.
HuberMDimkovaDHamacherT (2014) Integration of wind and solar power in Europe: Assessment of flexibility requirements. Energy69: 236–246, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.02.109
42.
HurD (2012) Economic considerations underlying the adoption of HVDC and HVAC for the connection of an offshore wind farm in Korea. Journal of Electrical Engineering and Technology7(2): 157–162, Available at: https://doi.org/10.5370/JEET.2012.7.2.157
43.
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency) (2019) Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2018. International Renewable Energy Agency.
44.
IslamMRGuoYZhuJ (2014) A review of offshore wind turbine nacelle: Technical challenges, and research and developmental trends. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews33: 161–176, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.085
JiangZ (2021) Installation of offshore wind turbines: A technical review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews139: 110576, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110576
47.
KaldellisJKKapsaliM (2013) Shifting towards offshore wind energy-Recent activity and future development. Energy Policy53: 136–148, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.10.032
48.
KashemSBAChowdhuryMEHTabassumMet al. (2020) Wind power integration with smart grid and storage system: Prospects and limitations. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications11(5). Available at:https://doi.org/10.14569/IJACSA.2020.0110570
49.
KonstantinidisEIBotsarisPN (2016) Wind turbines: Current status, obstacles, trends and technologies. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering161: 012079, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/161/1/012079
50.
KumarAPalDKarSK, et al. (2022) An overview of wind energy development and policy initiatives in India. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy24: 1337–1358, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02248-z
51.
LalSRSHerbertGMJArjunanP, et al. (2022) Advancements in renewable energy transition in India: A review. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects [Preprint], Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2021.2024921
52.
LeeJZhaoF (2018) Global Wind Report 2022, Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC). Tech. Rep.5–6.
53.
LegorburuIJohnsonKRKerrSA (2018) Multi-use maritime platforms - North Sea oil and offshore wind: Opportunity and risk. Ocean & Coastal Management160: 75–85, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.03.044
54.
LeonavičiusVGenysDKrikštolaitisR (2018) Public perception of energy security in Lithuania: between material interest and energy independence. Journal of Baltic Studies49(2): 157–175, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2018.1446033
55.
LiHChenZ (2008) Overview of different wind generator systems and their comparisons. IET Renewable Power Generation2(2): 123–138, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg:20070044
56.
LiJZhangMZhuJ, et al. (2015) Analysis of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Used in a Submarine HVAC Cable Based Offshore Wind System. Energy Procedia75: 691–696, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.491
57.
LiRYuLXuL (2018) Operation of offshore wind farms connected with DRU-HVDC transmission systems with special consideration of faults. Global Energy Interconnection1(5): 608, Available at: https://doi.org/10.14171/j.2096-5117.gei.2018.05.010
58.
LiddleBSadorskyP (2017) How much does increasing non-fossil fuels in electricity generation reduce carbon dioxide emissions?Applied Energy197: 212–221, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.04.025
59.
LiuSChuangZWangK, et al. (2022) Structural Parametric Optimization of the VolturnUS-S Semi-Submersible Foundation for a 15 MW Floating Offshore Wind Turbine. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering10(9): 1181, Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10091181
60.
MartinRLazakisIBarbouchiS, et al. (2016) Sensitivity analysis of offshore wind farm operation and maintenance cost and availability. Renewable Energy85: 1226–1236, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.07.078
61.
MorganECLacknerMVogelRM, et al. (2011) Probability distributions for offshore wind speeds. Energy Conversion and Management. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2010.06.015
62.
MorthorstPEKitzingL (2016) Economics of building and operating offshore wind farms. Offshore Wind Farms: Technologies, Design and Operation. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100779-2.00002-7
63.
MusialWButterfieldSMcniffB (2007) Improving wind turbine gearbox reliability. In: European Wind Energy Conference and Exhibition 2007, EWEC 2007.
64.
NagababuGKachhwahaSSSavsaniV (2017) Estimation of technical and economic potential of offshore wind along the coast of India. Energy138: 79–91, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.032
65.
NegraNBTodorovicJAckermannT (2006) Loss evaluation of HVAC and HVDC transmission solutions for large offshore wind farms. Electric Power Systems Research76(11): 916–927, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2005.11.004
66.
OlaofeZO (2017) Assessment of the offshore wind speed distributions at selected stations in the South-West Coast, Nigeria. International Journal of Renewable Energy Resources7(2): 565, Available at: https://doi.org/10.20508/ijrer.v7i2.5439.g7031
67.
OwusuPAAsumadu-SarkodieS (2016) A review of renewable energy sources, sustainability issues and climate change mitigation. Cogent Engineering3: 1167990, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2016.1167990
68.
PacesilaMBurceaSGColescaSE (2016) Analysis of renewable energies in European Union. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews56: 156–170, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.152
69.
PatilNSBhosleYN (2013) A review on wind turbine generator topologies. In: Proceedings of 2013 International Conference on Power, Energy and Control, ICPEC 2013. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICPEC.2013.6527733.
70.
Pérez-CollazoCGreavesDIglesiasG (2015) A review of combined wave and offshore wind energy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.032
71.
PerveenRKishorNMohantySR (2014) Off-shore wind farm development: Present status and challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews29: 780–792, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.108
72.
PichuginaYLBantaRMBrewerWA, et al. (2012) Doppler Lidar-based wind-profile measurement system for offshore wind-energy and other marine boundary layer applications. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology51(2): 327–349, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-11-040.1
73.
RenGLiuJWanJ, et al. (2017) Overview of wind power intermittency: Impacts, measurements, and mitigation solutions. Applied Energy204: 47–65, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.06.098
74.
RobakSRaczkowskiRM (2018) Substations for offshore wind farms: A review from the perspective of the needs of the Polish wind energy sector. Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Technical Sciences66(4): 517, Available at: https://doi.org/10.24425/124268
75.
RöckmannCLagerveldSStavenuiterJ (2017) Operation and maintenance costs of offshore wind farms and potential multi-use platforms in the Dutch North Sea. In: Aquaculture Perspective of Multi-Use Sites in the Open Ocean: The Untapped Potential for Marine Resources in the Anthropocene. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51159-7_4
76.
RogeljJden ElzenMHöhneN, et al. (2016) Paris Agreement climate proposals need a boost to keep warming well below 2°c. Nature534: 631–639, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature18307
77.
RourkeFOBoyleFReynoldsA (2010) Marine current energy devices: Current status and possible future applications in Ireland. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews14: 1026–1036, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.11.012
SallesMBCCardosoJRGriloAP, et al. (2009) Control strategies of doubly fed induction generators to support grid voltage. In: 2009 IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference, IEMDC ’09. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMDC.2009.5075410
80.
SathiyanarayananJSSenthil KumarA (2014) Doubly fed induction generator wind turbines with fuzzy controller: A survey. TheScientificWorldJOURNAL2014: 252645, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/252645
81.
ShafiullahGMMT OoAShawkat AliA, et al. (2013) Potential challenges of integrating large-scale wind energy into the power grid-A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews20: 306–321, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.057
82.
SharmaSSinhaS (2019) Indian wind energy & its development-policies-barriers: An overview. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators1-2: 1–2, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2019.100003
83.
ShikhaBhattiTSKothariDP (2005) New horizons for offshore wind energy: Shifting paradigms and challenges. Energy Sources27(4): 349–360, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00908310490441665
84.
ShinJSKimJO (2017) Optimal Design for Offshore Wind Farm considering Inner Grid Layout and Offshore Substation Location. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems32(3): 2041–2048, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2016.2593501
85.
SoleroL (2002) Power electronic converters devoted to stand-alone wind-energy generating systems. EPE Journal (European Power Electronics and Drives Journal)12(2): 43–48, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/09398368.2002.11463504
86.
TabassumAPremalathaMAbbasiT, et al. (2014) Wind energy: Increasing deployment, rising environmental concerns. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.11.019
87.
TavnerPJXiangJSpinatoF (2007) Reliability analysis for wind turbines. Wind Energy10(1): 1–18, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/we.204
88.
TengFMuYJiaH, et al. (2017) Challenges on primary frequency control and potential solution from EVs in the future GB electricity system. Applied Energy194: 353–362, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.05.123
89.
ThomaidisNSSantos-AlamillosFJPozo-VázquezD, et al. (2016) Optimal management of wind and solar energy resources. Computers & Operations Research66: 284–291, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cor.2015.02.016
90.
ToulabiMBahramiSRanjbarAM (2017) An input-to-state stability approach to inertial frequency response analysis of doubly-fed induction generator-based wind turbines. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion32(4): 1418–1431, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/TEC.2017.2696510
91.
U.S. Department of Energy (2019) Advantages and Challenges of Wind Energy. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy [Preprint].
92.
VardhanASSSinhaUK (2024) Control strategies and performance analysis of doubly fed induction generator for grid-connected wind energy conversion system. Electrical Engineering106(2): 1203–1224, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00202-023-02079-9
93.
WangXPalazogluAEl-FarraNH (2015) Operational optimization and demand response of hybrid renewable energy systems. Applied Energy143: 324–335, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.004
94.
WangWHuangXTanL, et al. (2016) Optimization design of an inductive energy harvesting device forwireless power supply system overhead high-voltage power lines. Energies9(4): 242, Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040242
95.
WarnockJMcMillanDPilgrimJ, et al. (2019) Failure rates of offshore wind transmission systems. Energies12(14): 2682, Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/en12142682
96.
WeitemeyerSKleinhansDVogtT, et al. (2015) Integration of Renewable Energy Sources in future power systems: The role of storage. Renewable Energy75: 14–20, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.09.028.
97.
Wind Europe Intelligence Platform (2023) European Offshore Wind Farms Map Public.
98.
WooJRChoiHAhnJ (2017) Well-to-wheel analysis of greenhouse gas emissions for electric vehicles based on electricity generation mix: A global perspective. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment51: 340–350, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.01.005
99.
WuXHuYLiY, et al. (2019) Foundations of offshore wind turbines: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews104: 379–393, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.012
100.
YangBLiuBZhouH, et al. (2022) A critical survey of technologies of large offshore wind farm integration: summary, advances, and perspectives. Protection and Control of Modern Power Systems7: 17, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41601-022-00239-w
101.
ZhangWFangK (2017) Controlling active power of wind farms to participate in load frequency control of power systems. IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution11(9): 2194–2203, Available at: https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-gtd.2016.1471
