To practise effectively, musicians must engage in self-regulated learning (SRL) through a cyclical process of planning, execution, and reflection. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a new questionnaire that measures SRL in the context of music practice. We generated an item pool by adapting items from existing scales and revising them based on feedback from an expert panel. This pool was administered to 290 musicians, randomly split into Subsamples A and B. Exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM) was carried out on Subsample A to create the final Self-Regulated Learning in Music Practice Self-Report Scale (SRL-MP-SRS), which consisted of 27 items distributed across five subscales. ESEM of the final model on Subsample B demonstrated a good fit. Internal consistency was acceptable for both the global scale and each of the subscales. The SRL-MP-SRS scores correlated positively with self-efficacy and deliberate practice, while professional musicians scored higher on the SRL-MP-SRS than students. The SRL-MP-SRS provides a valid and reliable way to measure musicians’ self-regulated practice that can be utilised with large samples, although further studies are needed to investigate its validity and limitations further.
AlamerA. (2022). Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and bifactor ESEM for construct validation purposes: Guidelines and applied example. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 100005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmal.2022.100005
2.
AraújoM. V. (2016). Measuring self-regulated practice behaviours in highly skilled musicians. Psychology of Music, 44(2), 278–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735614567554
3.
BagnerD. M.StorchE. A.RobertiJ. W. (2003). A factor analytic study of the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Scale in a sample of African-American and Hispanic-American Children. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 34(3), 237–250. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CHUD.0000014999.16111.2f
4.
BartulovicD.YoungB. W.BakerJ. (2017). Self-regulated learning predicts skill group differences in developing athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 31, 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.04.006
5.
BoatengG. O.NeilandsT. B.FrongilloE. A.Melgar-QuiñonezH. R.YoungS. L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: A primer. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 149. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149
6.
BrownT. A. (2003). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire: Multiple factors or method effects?Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(12), 1411–1426. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00059-7
7.
CasanovaO.Zarza-AlzugarayF.CuarteroL. M.OrejudoS. (2022). General musical self-efficacy scale: Adaptation and validation of a version in Spanish. Psychology of Music, 030573562211096. https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356221109623
8.
ClarkT.WilliamonA. (2011). Evaluation of a mental skills training program for musicians. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 23(3), 342–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2011.574676
9.
ClearyT. J.CallanG. L.ZimmermanB. J. (2012). Assessing self-regulation as a cyclical, context-specific phenomenon: Overview and analysis of SRL microanalytic protocols. Education Research International, 2012, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/428639
10.
CroninL. D.AllenJ. (2017). Development and initial validation of the Life Skills Scale for Sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 28, 105–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.11.001
11.
EbesutaniC.DrescherC. F.ReiseS. P.HeidenL.HightT. L.DamonJ. D.YoungJ. (2012). The importance of modeling method effects: Resolving the (Uni)dimensionality of the Loneliness Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 94(2), 186–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.627967
12.
FieldA.MilesJ.FieldZ. (2012). Discovering statistics using R. SAGE Publications Ltd.
13.
FriedrichA.JonkmannK.NagengastB.SchmitzB.TrautweinU. (2013). Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of self-regulated learning and math competence: Differentiation and agreement. Learning and Individual Differences, 27, 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.06.005
HatfieldJ. L.HalvariH.LemyreP.-N. (2017). Instrumental practice in the contemporary music academy: A three-phase cycle of Self-Regulated Learning in music students. Musicae Scientiae, 21(3), 316–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864916658342
16.
JansenR. S.van LeeuwenA.JanssenJ.KesterL. (2018). Validation of the Revised Self-Regulated Online Learning Questionnaire. In Pammer-SchindlerV.Pérez-SanagustínM.DrachslerH.ElferinkR.ScheffelM. (Eds.), Lifelong technology-enhanced learning (Vol. 11082; pp. 116–121). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98572-5_9
17.
KegelaersJ.HoogkamerL.OudejansR. R. (2022). Practice and performance management strategies of emerging professional musicians in preparation for orchestra auditions. Research Studies in Music Education, 44(1), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X211054659
18.
LindnerC.NagyG.RetelsdorfJ. (2015). The dimensionality of the Brief Self-Control Scale – An evaluation of unidimensional and multidimensional applications. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 465–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.006
19.
López-ÍñiguezG.McPhersonG. E. (2020). Applying Self-Regulated Learning and Self-Determination Theory to optimize the performance of a concert cellist. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 385. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00385
20.
LovibondS. H.LovibondP. F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation.
21.
MacnamaraB. N.MaitraM. (2019). The role of deliberate practice in expert performance: Revisiting Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Römer (1993). Royal Society Open Science, 6(8), 190327. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190327
22.
MarshH. W. (1996). Positive and negative global self-esteem: A substantively meaningful distinction or artifactors?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(4), 810–819. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.70.4.810
23.
MarshH. W.MorinA. J. S.ParkerP. D.KaurG. (2014). Exploratory structural equation modeling: An integration of the best features of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10(1), 85–110. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153700
24.
MarshH. W.MuthénB.AsparouhovT.LüdtkeO.RobitzschA.MorinA. J. S.TrautweinU. (2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling, integrating CFA and EFA: Application to students’ evaluations of university teaching. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 16(3), 439–476. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903008220
25.
MarshH. W.ScalasL. F.NagengastB. (2010). Longitudinal tests of competing factor structures for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Traits, ephemeral artifacts, and stable response styles. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 366–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019225
26.
McCardleL.YoungB. W.BakerJ. (2018). Two-phase evaluation of the validity of a measure for self-regulated learning in sport practice. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 2641. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02641
27.
McPhersonG. E. (2022). Self-regulated learning music microanalysis. In McPhersonG. E. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of music performance, volume 1 (pp. 553–575). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190056285.013.23
28.
McPhersonG. E.MikszaP.EvansP. (2017). Self-regulated learning in music practice and performance. In SchunkD. H.GreeneJ. A. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.; pp. 181–193). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315697048-12
29.
McPhersonG. E.OsborneM. S.EvansP.MikszaP. (2019). Applying self-regulated learning microanalysis to study musicians’ practice. Psychology of Music, 47(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735617731614
30.
McPhersonG. E.ZimmermanB. J. (2011). Self-regulation of musical learning. In ColwellR.WebsterP. (Eds.), MENC handbook of research on music learning (pp. 130–175). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199754397.003.0004
31.
MikszaP. (2012). The development of a measure of self-regulated practice behavior for beginning and intermediate instrumental music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 59(4), 321–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429411414717
32.
MikszaP.BlackwellJ.RosethN. E. (2018). Self-regulated music practice: Microanalysis as a data collection technique and inspiration for pedagogical intervention. Journal of Research in Music Education, 66(3), 295–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429418788557
33.
MikszaP.BrennerB. (2023). A descriptive study of intra-individual change in advanced violinists’ music practice. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 41(3), 22–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/87551233221090232
34.
MorinA. J. S.MaïanoC. (2011). Cross-validation of the short form of the physical self-inventory (PSI-S) using exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM). Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12(5), 540–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.04.003
35.
MorinA. J. S.MyersN. D.LeeS. (2020). Modern factor analytic techniques: Bifactor models, Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM), and bifactor-ESEM. In TenenbaumG.EklundR. C. (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (1st ed.; pp. 1044–1073). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119568124.ch51
36.
MornellA.OsborneM. S.McPhersonG. E. (2020). Evaluating practice strategies, behavior and learning progress in elite performers: An exploratory study. Musicae Scientiae, 24(1), 130–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864918771731
37.
OsborneM. S.McPhersonG. E.MikszaP.EvansP. (2021). Using a microanalysis intervention to examine shifts in musicians’ self-regulated learning. Psychology of Music, 49(4), 972–988. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735620915265
38.
OwensT. J. (1994). Two dimensions of self-esteem: Reciprocal effects of positive self-worth and self-deprecation on adolescent problems. American Sociological Review, 59(3), 391. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095940
39.
PanaderoE. (2017). A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 422. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422
40.
PassarottoE.PreckelF.SchneiderM.MüllensiefenD. (2022). Deliberate practice in music: Development and psychometric validation of a standardized measurement instrument. Psychology of Music, 50(5), 1637–1655. https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356211065172
41.
PerryJ. L.NichollsA. R.CloughP. J.CrustL. (2015). Assessing model fit: Caveats and recommendations for confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 19(1), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367X.2014.952370
42.
PikeP. D. (2017a). Exploring self-regulation through a reflective practicum: A case study of improvement through mindful piano practice. Music Education Research, 19(4), 398–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2017.1356813
ReverberiE.GozzoliC.D’AngeloC.LanzM.SorgenteA. (2021). The self-regulation of learning – Self-report scale for sport practice: Validation of an Italian version for football. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 604852. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.604852
45.
RhemtullaM.Brosseau-LiardP. É.SavaleiV. (2012). When can categorical variables be treated as continuous? A comparison of robust continuous and categorical SEM estimation methods under suboptimal conditions. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 354–373. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029315
46.
RitchieL.SharpeB. T. (2022). Validation and validity: Self-efficacy, metacognition, and knowledge-and-appraisal personality architecture (KAPA). Psychology, 13(10), 1474–1503. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2022.1310094
RosseelY. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–36.
49.
SuzukiA. (2025). Developing an online intervention to equip tertiary piano students with skills and strategies for effective practice [Doctoral thesis]. Manchester Metropolitan University.
50.
SuzukiA.MitchellH. F. (2022). What makes practice perfect? How tertiary piano students self-regulate play and non-play strategies for performance success. Psychology of Music, 50(2), 611–630. https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356211010927
51.
TengL. S.ZhangY.SunP. P. (2024). The dimensionality of L2 teacher self-regulation strategies and its interactions with teacher self-efficacy: Exploratory structural equation modeling. System, 121, 103271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103271
52.
The jamovi project. (2022). jamovi (Version 2.3) [Computer Software]. https://www.jamovi.org
53.
ToeringT.Elferink-GemserM. T.JonkerL.van HeuvelenM. J. G.VisscherC. (2012). Measuring self-regulation in a learning context: Reliability and validity of the Self-Regulation of Learning Self-Report Scale (SRL-SRS). International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10(1), 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2012.645132
54.
ToeringT.JordetG.RipegutuA. (2013). Effective learning among elite football players: The development of a football-specific self-regulated learning questionnaire. Journal of Sports Sciences, 31(13), 1412–1420. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2013.792949
55.
VarelaW.AbramiP. C.UpitisR. (2016). Self-regulation and music learning: A systematic review. Psychology of Music, 44(1), 55–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735614554639
56.
VealeyR. (2007). Mental skills training in sport. In TenenbaumG.EklundR. C. (Eds), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed., pp. 285–309). Wiley.
57.
WeinbergR. S.GouldD. (2011). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (5th ed.). Human Kinetics.
58.
WinneP. H.PerryN. E. (2000). Measuring self-regulated learning. In BoekaertsM.ZeidnerM.PintrichP. R. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 531–566). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50045-7
59.
ZhangC.KwanJ. L. Y.LeungB.-W. (2023). Adaptation of a Self-Regulated Practice Behavior Scale for Chinese music majors. Journal of Research in Music Education, 71, 343–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224294221147008
60.
ZhangC.LeungB.-W. (2024). Music majors’ Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) of music practice in China: Two case studies based on the SRL microanalysis. International Journal of Music Education, 42, 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/02557614231170285
ZimmermanB. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In BoekaertsM.PintrichP. R.ZeidnerM. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50031-7
63.
ZimmermanB. J. (2008). Goal setting: A key proactive source of academic self-regulation. In SchunkD. H.ZimmermanB. J. (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 267–295). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
