Several classical issues in the area of music and emotion were investigated in a 3
× 3 × 2 × 2 × 4 experiment (N
=144). Participants recalled happy, neutral, or sad life-events, and they listened
to happy, neutral, or sad music, in one of two orders of recall and listening. Four
dependent measures were obtained: Own emotional state at the time that the recalled
event originally occurred (ETHEN) and immediately after recall (ENOW); own emotional
state after listening to music (IEM) and a rating of the emotional expressiveness of
the music (EDEM), with the order of IEM and EDEM counterbalanced. All measures were
on a 13-point happy—sad scale. The main, statistically highly
significant, findings were: (a) the ETHEN ratings were more extreme on both the
happy and sad tasks than the ENOW and IEM ratings; (b) the ENOW scores were more
extreme than the IEM ones, but only on the sad task; (c) the EDEM ratings were more
extreme than the IEM ones; (d) the IEM ratings were nevertheless different from the
scale midpoint, especially when the participants listened to music before recalling
events. The pattern of results and complex methodological issues cast considerable
doubt on the idea of a direct causal link between music and emotion. It was also
proposed that the notion of `musical emotions' be replaced by the concepts of `being
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