Does the Internet Make the World Worse? Depression,Aggression and Polarization in the Social Media Age

Abstract

Since the 1990s, the influence of the internet and social media in daily communication has skyrocketed. This has brought both remarkable opportunities and perceived perils. Recent years have seen increases in suicide and mental health concerns, political polarization, and online aggression. Can such phenomenon be connected causally to communication via social media? This article reviews the evidence for perceived deleterious effects of social media on several areas of human welfare, including political polarization, depression and suicide, aggression, and cyberbullying. In addition to examining contemporary evidence from psychological studies, a historical analysis is included to examine whether we truly live in a uniquely difficult time or whether similar patterns of social behavior can be witnessed in other, pre-internet times. It is concluded that evidence may link social media to some negative social outcomes but in ways that are nuanced and complicated, often interacting with user motivations and personalities and situational variables. An increased focus on preregistered, standardized scientific methods and cautious interpretation of effect sizes can help clarify real versus phantom effects of social media.

Keywords

social media suicide screens preregistration political psychology depression

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adachi

P. J. C.

Hodson

Willoughby

Blank

(2016). From outgroups to allied forces: Effect of intergroup cooperation in violent and nonviolent video games on boosting favorable outgroup attitudes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(3), 259–265. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/xge0000145

Allen

(2011). Tories: Fighting for the king in America’s First Civil War. Harper Paperbacks.

Baldassarri

Gelman

(2008). Partisans without constraint: Political polarization and trends in American public opinion. American Journal of Sociology, 114, 408–446. https://doi.org/10.1086/590649

Baron

Richardson

(1994). Human aggression. Plenum Press.

Berryman

Ferguson

C. J.

Negy

(2018). Social media use and mental health among young adults. Psychiatric Quarterly, 89(2), 307–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-017-9535-6

Best

Manktelow

Taylor

(2014). Online communication, social media and adolescent wellbeing: A systematic narrative review. Children and Youth Services Review, 41, 27–36. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.001

Block

Crain

(2007). Omissions and errors in ‘Media violence and the American public.’. American Psychologist, 62, 252–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.3.252

Boutwell

B. B.

Franklin

C. A.

Barnes

J. C.

Beaver

K. M.

(2011). Physical punishment and childhood aggression: The role of gender and gene–environment interplay. Aggressive Behavior, 37(6), 559–568. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/ab.20409

Bowman

N. D.

(2016). The rise (and refinement) of moral panic. In Kowert

Quandt

(Eds.), The video game debate: Unravelling the physical, social, and psychological effects of digital games (pp. 22–38). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

10.

Brady

D. H.

Pope

(2007). Primary elections and candidate ideology: Out of step with the primary electorate? Legislative Studies Quarterly, 32, 79–105. https://doi.org/10.3162/036298007X201994

11.

Brownworth

(2010). Lost to the west: The forgotten byzantine empire that rescued western civilization. Broadway Books.

12.

Chan

(2015). Mobile phones and the good life: Examining the relationships among mobile use, social capital and subjective well-being. New Media & Society, 17(1), 96–113. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/1461444813516836

13.

Chen

G. M.

(2015). Losing face on social media: Threats to positive face lead to an indirect effect on retaliatory aggression through negative affect. Communication Research, 42(6), 819–838. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0093650213510937

14.

Choi

D.-H.

Shin

D.-H.

(2017). Exploring political compromise in the new media environment: The interaction effects of social media use and the Big Five personality traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 106, 163–171. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.11.022

15.

Clark

Liu

Winegard

Ditto

(2019). Tribalism is human nature. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(6), 587–592. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419862289

16.

Conover

Ratkiewicz

Francisco

Goncalves

Flammini

(2011). Political polarization on Twitter. Proceedings of the Fifth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media. https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM11/paper/view/2847/3275.

17.

Davila

Hershenberg

Feinstein

B. A.

Gorman

Bhatia

Starr

L. R.

(2012). Frequency and quality of social networking among young adults: Associations with depressive symptoms, rumination, and corumination. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(2), 72–86. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/a0027512

18.

Ditto

P. H.

Liu

B. S.

Clark

C. J.

Wojcik

S. P.

Chen

E. E.

Grady

R. H.

Celniker

J. B.

Zinger

J. F.

(2019). At least bias is bipartisan: A meta-analytic comparison of partisan bias in liberals and conservatives. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(2), 273–291. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/1745691617746796

19.

Dubois

Blank

(2018). The echo chamber is overstated: The moderating effect of political interest and diverse media. Information, Communication & Society, 21, 729–745. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1428656

20.

Everitt

(2013). The rise of Rome. Random House.

21.

Ferguson

C. J.

(2009). An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40(5), 532–538. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015808

22.

Ferguson

C. J.

(2014). Is reading “banned” books associated with behavior problems in young readers? The influence of controversial young adult books on the psychological well-being of adolescents. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 8, 354–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035601

23.

Ferguson

C. J.

(2017). Everything in moderation: Moderate use of screens unassociated with child behavior problems. Psychiatric Quarterly, 88(4), 797–805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-016-9486-3

24.

Ferguson

C. J.

(2020a). How madness shaped history. Rowman & Littlefield.

25.

Ferguson

C. J.

(2020b). Aggressive video games research emerges from its replication crisis (sort of). Current Opinion in Psychology, 36, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.01.002

26.

Ferguson

C. J.

Heene

(2021). Providing a lower-bound estimate for psychology’s “crud factor”: The case of aggression. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000386

27.

Fraser

(2005). The story of Britain: From the Romans to the present: A narrative history. W. W. Norton & Company.

28.

Garimella

Weber

(2017). A long-term analysis of polarization on Twitter. Proceedings of the Eleventh International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media. https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM17/paper/view/15592/14846.

29.

Government Accountability Office (2017). Countering violent extremism. https://www.gao.gov/assets/690/683984.pdf.

30.

Graham

(1970). The paradox of American violence: A historical appraisal. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 391, 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271627039100107

31.

Grechyna

(2016). On the determinants of political polarization. Economic Letters, 144, 10–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2016.04.018

32.

Greenberg

(2020). The New York Times used to be a model of diverse opinion. What happened? Politico. https://news.yahoo.com/york-times-survived-1960s-105730411.html.

33.

Grieve

Watkinson

(2016). The psychological benefits of being authentic on Facebook. Cyberpsychology. Behavior, and Social Networking, 19(7), 420–425. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0010

34.

Grohol

(2014). Emotional contagion on Facebook? More like bad research methods. PsychCentral. https://psychcentral.com/blog/emotional-contagion-on-facebook-more-like-bad-research-methods/.

35.

Gruzd

Roy

(2014). Investigating political polarization on twitter: A Canadian perspective. Policy and Internet, 6, 28–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/1944-2866.POI354

36.

Hameleers

Bos

de Vreese

C. H.

(2018). Selective exposure to populist communication: How attitudinal congruence drives the effects of populist attributions of blame. Journal of Communication, 68(1), 51–74. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1093/joc/jqx001

37.

Hammer

(2020). The roman republic and the crisis of American democracy: Echoes of the past. Polis: The Journal for Ancient Greek and Roman Political Thought, 37, 95–122. https://doi.org/10.1163/20512996-12340259

38.

Han

Brady

(2007). A delayed return to historical norms: Congressional party polarization after the second world War. British Journal of Political Science, 37, 505–531. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123407000269

39.

Heffner

Good

Daly

MacDonell

Willoughby

(2019). The longitudinal association between social-media use and depressive symptoms among adolescents and young adults: An empirical reply to Twenge et al. (2018). Clinical Psychological Science, 7(3), 462–470. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702618812727

40.

Hmielowski

J. D.

Hutchens

M. J.

Cicchirillo

V. J.

(2014). Living in an age of online incivility: Examining the conditional indirect effects of online discussion on political flaming. Information, Communication & Society, 17(10), 1196–1211. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/1369118X.2014.899609

41.

Hong

(2013). Who benefits from Twitter? Social media and political competition in the U.S. House of representatives. Government Information Quarterly, 30, 464–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2013.05.009

42.

Hong

Kim

(2016). Political polarization on Twitter: Implications for the use of social media in digital governments. Government Information Quarterly, 33, 777–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2016.04.007

43.

Howcroft

Fitzgerald

(1998). From Utopia to Dystopia: the twin faces of the internet. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228817859_From_Utopia_to_Dystopia_the_twin_faces_of_the_Internet.

44.

Huang

(2017). Time spent on social network sites and psychological well-being: A meta-analysis. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 20(6), 346–354. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0758

45.

Jensen

George

Russel

Odgers

(2019). Young adolescents’ digital technology use and adolescents’ mental health symptoms: Little evidence of longitudinal or daily linkages. Clinical Psychological Science, 7(6), 1416–1433. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702619859336

46.

Jones

L. M.

Mitchell

K. J.

Finkelhor

(2013). Online harassment in context: Trends from three youth internet safety surveys (2000, 2005, 2010). Psychology of Violence, 3(1), 53–69. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/a0030309

47.

Kolmes

(2012). Social media in the future of professional psychology. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(6), 606–612. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/a0028678

48.

Kowalski

R. M.

Giumetti

G. W.

Schroeder

A. N.

Lattanner

M. R.

(2014). Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1073–1137. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/a0035618

49.

Kramer

Guillory

Hancock

(2014). Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 24, 8788–8790. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1320040111. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1320040111

50.

Krasnova

Widjaja

Buxmann

Wenninger

Benbasat

(2015). Why following friends can hurt you: An exploratory investigation of the effects of envy on social networking sites among college-age users. Information Systems Research, 26(3), 585–605. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1287/isre.2015.0588

51.

Lee

Shin

Hong

(2018). Does social media use really make people politically polarized? Direct and indirect effects of social media use on political polarization in South Korea. Telematics and Informatics, 35, 245–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2017.11.005

52.

Lee

J. K.

Choi

Kim

(2014). Social media, network heterogeneity, and opinion polarization. Journal of Communication, 64(4), 702–722. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/jcom.12077

53.

Lin

L. y.

Sidani

J. E.

Shensa

Radovic

Miller

Colditz

J. B.

Hoffman

B. L.

Giles

L. M.

Primack

B. A.

(2016). Association between social media use and depression among US young adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(4), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22466

54.

Lind

(2020). The New Class War. Portfolio.

55.

Manbeck

K. E.

Kanter

J. W.

Kuczynski

A. M.

Fine

Corey

M. D.

Maitland

D. W. M.

(2018). Improving relations among conservatives and liberals on a college campus: A preliminary trial of a contextual-behavioral intervention. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 10, 120–125. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.10.006

56.

Markey

P. M.

Males

M. A.

French

J. E.

Markey

C. N.

(2015). Lessons from Markey et al. (2015) and Bushman et al. (2015): Sensationalism and integrity in media research. Human Communication Research, 41(2), 184–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12057

57.

McCall

Shields

(2008). Examining the evidence from small-scale societies and early prehistory and implications for modern theories of aggression and violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2007.04.001

58.

McCreery

M. P.

Kathleen Krach

(2018). How the human is the catalyst: Personality, aggressive fantasy, and proactive-reactive aggression among users of social media. Personality and Individual Differences, 133, 91–95. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.06.037

59.

McMartin

S. E.

Kingsbury

Dykxhoorn

Colman

(2014). Time trends in symptoms of mental illness in children and adolescents in Canada. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 186(18), E672–E678. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.140064

60.

Memmedova

Selahattin

E. L.

(2018). Effects of the technology use on anxiety and aggression levels of youth conducting their higher education studies abroad. Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 52(Suppl 1), S501–S507. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0630-4

61.

Michener

H. A.

Cohen

E. D.

(1973). Effects of punishment magnitude in the bilateral threat situation: Evidence for the deterrence hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26(3), 427–438. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/h0034467

62.

Mitchell

K. J.

Wolak

Finkelhor

(2008). Are blogs putting youth at risk for online sexual solicitation or harassment? Child Abuse & Neglect, 32(2), 277–294. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.04.015

63.

Newman

Dutton

Blank

(2013). Social media in the changing ecology of news: The fourth and fifth estates in Britain. International Journal of Internet Science, 7(1), 6–22.

64.

Orben

Dienlin

Przybylski

A. K.

(2019). Social media’s enduring effect on adolescent life satisfaction. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(21), 10226–10228. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1902058116

65.

Orben

Przybylski

(2019a). The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nature Human Behavior, 3, 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1

66.

Orben

Przybylski

A. K.

(2019b). Screens, teens, and psychological well-being: Evidence from three time-use-diary studies. Psychological Science, 30(5), 682–696. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619830329

67.

Paananen

Reichl

A. J.

(2019). Gendertrolls just want to have fun, too. Personality and Individual Differences, 141, 152–156. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.01.011

68.

Park

Lee

D. S.

Shablack

Verduyn

Deldin

Ybarra

Jonides

Kross

(2016). When perceptions defy reality: The relationships between depression and actual and perceived Facebook social support. Journal of Affective Disorders, 200, 37–44. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.01.048

69.

Patton

D. U.

Hong

J. S.

Ranney

Patel

Kelley

Eschmann

Washington

(2014). Social media as a vector for youth violence: A review of the literature. Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 548–553. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.043

70.

Pauwels

L. J. R.

Hardyns

(2018). Endorsement for extremism, exposure to extremism via social media and self-reported political/religious aggression. International Journal of Developmental Science, 12(1–2), 51–69. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.3233/DEV-170229

71.

Pew Research Center (2014a). Political polarization in the American public. https://www.people-press.org/2014/06/12/political-polarization-in-the-american-public/.

72.

Pew Research Center (2014b). Online Harassment. https://www.pewinternet.org/2014/10/22/online-harassment/.

73.

Pew Research Center (2017). Political polarization, 1994-2017. https://www.people-press.org/interactives/political-polarization-1994-2017/.

74.

Pinker

(2011). The better angels of our nature: Why violence has declined. Viking, New York.

75.

Przybylski

Bowes

(2017). Cyberbullying and adolescent well-being in England: A population-based cross-sectional study. Lancet: Child and Adolescent Health, 1, 19–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(17)30011-1

76.

Przybylski

A. K.

Weinstein

(2017). A large-scale test of the Goldilocks hypothesis: Quantifying the relations between digital-screen use and the mental well-being of adolescents. Psychological Science, 28(2), 204–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616678438

77.

Qiu

Lin

Leung

A. K.

Tov

(2012). Putting their best foot forward: Emotional disclosure on Facebook. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(10), 569–572. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0200

78.

Reinecke

Trepte

(2014). Authenticity and well-being on social network sites: A two-wave longitudinal study on the effects of online authenticity and the positivity bias in SNS communication. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 95–102. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.030

79.

Ritchie

(2021). Is Instagram really bad for teenagers? Unherd. https://unherd.com/2021/09/facebooks-bad-science/.

80.

Romer

(2020). Reanalysis of the Bridge, et al. study of suicide following release of 13 Reasons Why. PLoS One. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0227545.

81.

Ronson

(2015). So you’ve been publicly shamed. Riverhead Books.

82.

Rosen

L. D.

Whaling

Rab

Carrier

L. M.

Cheever

N. A.

(2013). Is Facebook creating ‘“iDisorders”’? The link between clinical symptoms of psychiatric disorders and technology use, attitudes and anxiety. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 1243–1254. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.11.012

83.

Rosnow

R. L.

Rosenthal

(2003). Effect sizes for experimenting psychologists. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expérimentale, 57(3), 221–237. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087427

84.

Rosz

Stahel

Frey

B. S.

(2016). Digital social norm enforcement: Online firestorms in social media. PLoS ONE, 11(6).

85.

Savage

Yancey

(2008). The effects of media violence exposure on criminal aggression: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 1123–1136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854808316487

86.

Sengupta

Chaudhuri

(2011). Are social networking sites a source of online harassment for teens? Evidence from survey data. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(2), 284–290. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.09.011

87.

Sherry

J. L.

(2013). The challenge of audience reception: A developmental model for educational game engagement. In Blumberg

F. C.

Fisch

S. M.

(Eds.), Digital games: A context for cognitive development. (Vol. 2013, pp. 11–20). Jossey-Bass.

88.

Simmons

J. P.

Nelson

L. D.

Simonsohn

(2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1359–1366. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632

89.

Slawinski, B. L., Klump, K. L., & Burt, S. A. (2019). No sex differences in the origins of covariation between social and physical aggression. Psychological Medicine, 49(15), 2515–2523. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1017/S0033291718003392

90.

Smith

Mayer

(2019). Anomalous anglophones? Contours of free market ideology, political polarization, and climate change attitudes in English-speaking countries, Western European and post-communist states. Climatic Change, 152, 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2332-x

91.

Stella

Ferrara

De Domenico

(2018). Bots increase exposure to negative and inflammatory content in online social systems. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(49), 12435–12440. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803470115

92.

Stewart

T. A.

(1996). Boom time on the new frontier. In Kling

(Ed.), Computerization and controversy (pp. 67–74). Academic Press.

93.

Stukal

Sanovich

Bonneau

Tucker

(2017). Detecting bots on Russian political Twitter. Big Data, 5, https://doi.org/10.1089/big.2017.0038

94.

Subrahmanyam

Reich

S. M.

Waechter

Espinoza

(2008). Online and offline social networks: Use of social networking sites by emerging adults. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29(6), 420–433. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.07.003

95.

Tang

W. Y.

Fox

(2016). Men’s harassment behavior in online video games: Personality traits and game factors. Aggressive Behavior, 42(6), 513–521. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/ab.21646

96.

Thucydides (1934). The complete writings of Thucydides. Translated by R. Crawley. Random House.

97.

Twenge

Haidt

Joiner

Campbell

(2020). Underestimating digital media harm. Nature Human Behavior, 4, 346–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0839-4

98.

Twenge

J. M.

Campbell

W. K.

(2019). Media use is linked to lower psychological well-being: Evidence from three datasets. Psychiatric Quarterly, 90(2), 311–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-019-09630-7

99.

Twenge

J. M.

Cooper

A. B.

Joiner

T. E.

Duffy

M. E.

Binau

S. G.

(2019). Age, period, and cohort trends in mood disorder indicators and suicide-related outcomes in a nationally representative dataset, 2005–2017. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(3), 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000410.supp

100.

Twenge

J. M.

Joiner

T. E.

Rogers

M. L.

Martin

G. N.

(2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among US adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617723376

101.

Utz

(2015). The function of self-disclosure on social network sites: Not only intimate, but also positive and entertaining self-disclosures increase the feeling of connection. Computers in Human Behavior, 45, 1–10. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.076

102.

Van Alstyne

Brynjolfsson

(2005). Global village or cyber-Balkans? Modeling and measuring the integration of electronic communities. Management Science, 51(6), 851–868. https://doi.org/10.2307/20110380

103.

Vigen

(2015). Spurious correlations. Hachette Book Group.

104.

Waasdorp

T. E.

Pas

E. T.

Zablotsk

Bradshaw

C. P.

(2017). Ten-year trends in bullying and related attitudes among 4th- to 12th-graders. Pediatrics, 139(6), 1–8. http://search.ebscohost.com.stetson.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct = true&db = psyh&AN = 2017-34833-001&site = ehost-live. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-2615

105.

Wang

J.-L.

Jackson

L. A.

Gaskin

Wang

H.-Z.

(2014). The effects of Social Networking Site (SNS) use on college students’ friendship and well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 37, 229–236. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.051

106.

Weston

Richie

Rohrer

Przybylski

(2019). Recommendations for increasing the transparency of analysis of preexisting data sets. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 2(3), 214–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245919848684

107.

Whitaker

(2002). Mad in America: Bad science, bad medicine, and the enduring mistreatment of the mentally ill. Perseus Publishing.

108.

Wood

(2009). Empire of liberty. Oxford University Press.

109.

Wright

M. F.

(2013). The relationship between young adults’ beliefs about anonymity and subsequent cyber aggression. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(12), 858–862. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1089/cyber.2013.0009

110.

Wright

M. F.

(2014). Predictors of anonymous cyber aggression: The role of adolescents’ beliefs about anonymity, aggression, and the permanency of digital content. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(7), 431–438. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2013.0457

111.

Wright

M. F.

(2013). Normative beliefs about aggression and cyber aggression among young adults: A longitudinal investigation. Aggressive Behavior, 39(3), 161–170. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/ab.21470

112.

Young

Len-Ríos

Young

(2017). Romantic motivations for social media use, social comparison, and online aggression among adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 385–395. https://doi-org.stetson.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.021