A new direct-contact toxicity test, the solid-phase flash assay, which utilises photobacteria in direct contact with soil particles during the exposure, was evaluated on four soil samples. Samples HTNT1 and HTNT2 originated from former military sites in Germany, and were highly contaminated with nitroaromatics (approximately 20g/kg), lead and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Samples LMKW1 and LMKW2, from bioremediation stacks in Germany, were mainly contaminated with mineral oils. The solid-phase flash assay was applied to soil-water slurries, and the results were compared with the toxicity data for soil-water extracts obtained by using various conventional ecotoxicological tests, in which photobacteria, crustaceans, protozoa and algae were used as test organisms. The LMKW1 and LMKW2 samples were not toxic (EC20 > 12.5%) according to all the tests applied, except for the Photobacterium phosphoreum conventional luminescence-inhibition test for LMKW1 (15-minute EC20 = 5.4%). The HTNT1 and HTNT2 samples were toxic according to all the tests applied, with the majority of EC20 values being lower than 1%. The solid-phase flash assay (1 minute of extraction and 30 seconds of exposure time) gave comparable results to the conventional tests. Therefore, this flash assay could be applied as a fast screening test in parallel with conventional toxicity tests that use soil 24-hour extracts. The flash assay results will be ready by the start of the conventional assays, and could serve as range-finders for these slower and more expensive tests.
BlokJ., & BalkF. (1955). Environmental regulation in the European Community. In Fundamentals of Aquatic Toxicology: Effects, Environmental Fate and Risk Assessment (ed. RandG.M.), pp. 775–802. Washington, DC, USA: Taylor & Francis.
2.
KaiserK.L.E., & DevillersJ. (1994). Ecotoxicity of chemicals to Photobacterium phosphoreum. Handbook of Ecotoxicological Data (ed. DevillersJ.), 880 pp. Yverdon, Switzerland: Gordon & Breach Science Publishers.
3.
HastingsJ.W. (1978). Bacterial bioluminescence: an overview. In Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 57 (ed. DeLucaM.A.), pp. 125–135. New York, USA: Academic Press.
4.
BulichA.A (1982). A practical and reliable method for monitoring the toxicity of aquatic samples. Process Biochemistry17, 45–47.
5.
RiboJ.M., & KaiserK.L.E. (1987). Photobacterium phosphoreum toxicity bioassay. I. Test procedures and applications. Toxicity Assessment2, 305–323.
6.
BlackburnJ.W., & HafkerW.R. (1993). The impact of biochemistry, bioavailability and bioactivity on the selection of bioremediation techniques. Trends in Biotechnology11, 328–333.
DodardS.G., RenouxA.Y., HawariJ., AmplemanG., ThiboutotS., & SunaharaG.I. (1999). Ecotoxicity characterization of dinitrotoluenes and some of their reduced metabolites. Chemosphere38, 2071–2079.
9.
AprillW., SimsR.C., SimsJ.L., & MatthewsJ.E. (1990). Assessing detoxifications and degradation of wood preserving and petroleum wastes in contaminated soil. Waste Management and Research8, 45–65.
10.
HulingS.G., PopeD.F., MatthewsJ.E., SimsJ.L., SimsR.C., & SorensenD.L. (1995). Land treatment and the toxicity response of soil contaminated with wood preserving waste. Remediation5, 41–56.
11.
SymonsB.D., & SimsR.C. (1988). Assessing detoxification of a complex hazardous waste, using the Microtox™ bioassay. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology17, 497–505.
12.
HoK.T.Y., & QuinnJ.G. (1993). Physical and chemical parameters of sediment extraction and fractionation that influence toxicity, as evaluated by Microtox. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry12, 615–625.
13.
SunaharaG.I., DodardS., SarrazinM., PaquetL., AmplemanG., ThiboutetS., HawariJ., & RenouxA.Y. (1998). Development of a soil extraction procedure for ecotoxicity characterization of energetic compounds. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety39, 185–194.
14.
KwanK.K., & DutkaB.J. (1992). Evaluation of Toxi-Chromotest direct sediment toxicity testing procedure and Microtox solid-phase testing procedure. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology49, 656–662.
15.
KahruA., TomsonK., PallT., & KülmI. (1996). Study of toxicity of pesticides using luminescent bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum. Water Science and Technology3, 147–154.
16.
PardosM., & BlaiseC. (1999). Assessment of toxicity and genotoxicity of hydrophobic organic compounds in wastewater. Environmental Toxicology14, 241–247.
RönnpaegelK., LissW., & AhlfW. (1995). Microbial bioassays to assess the toxicity of solid-associated contaminants. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety31, 99–103.
19.
BrouverH., MurphyT., & McArdleL. (1990). A sediment-contact bioassay with Photobacterium phosphoreum. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry9, 1353–1358.
20.
SvensonA., CardosoA., ThurenA., KajL., & DaveG. (1994). Microtox Toxicity in Sediments: Modified Method for the Direct Contact Test with Luminescent Bacteria. IVL Report B1140.20 pp. Stockholm, Sweden: Swedish Environmental Institute.
21.
GuzzellaL. (1998). Comparison of test procedures for sediment toxicity evaluation with Vibrio fischeri bacteria. Chemosphere37, 2895–2909.
22.
LappalainenJ., JuvonenR., VaajasaariK., & KarpM. (1999). A new flash method for measuring the toxicity of solid and colored samples. Chemosphere38, 1069–1083.
23.
MaxamG., RilaJ-P., DottW., & EisenträgerA. (2000). Use of bioassays for assessment of the water-extractable ecotoxic potential of soils?Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 45, 240–246.
24.
EhrlichmannH., DottW., & EisenträgerA. (2000). Assessment of the water extractable genotoxic potential of contaminated soil samples. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, in press.
25.
EisenträgerA., MaxamM., EhrlichmannH., SchmitzR.P.H., RilaJ-P., HundK., LutermannC., & DottW. (1997). Ecotoxicological and genotoxicological characterization of soils contaminated with high concentrations of nitroaromatics. In Proceedings of Eco-Informa ‘97 (ed. AlefK., BrandtJ., FiedlerH., HauthalW., HutzingerO., MackayD., MatthiesM., MorganK., NewlandL., RobitailleH., SchlummerM., SchüürmannG., & VoightK.), 12, 245–252. Bayreuth, Germany: Eco-Informa Press.
26.
KahruA., KurvetM., & KülmI. (1996). Toxicity of phenolic wastewater to luminescent bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum. Water Science and Technology33, 139–146.
27.
KahruA. (1993). In vitro toxicity testing using marine luminescent bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum: the BioTox™ test. ATLA21, 210–215.
28.
SchmitzR.P.H., EisenträgerA., & DottW. (1998). Miniaturized kinetic growth inhibition assays with Vibrio fischeri and Pseudomonas putida (application, validation and comparison). Journal of Microbiological Methods31, 159–166.
29.
Anon. (1995). Thamnotoxkit F™: Crustacean Toxicity Screening Test for Freshwater. Standard Operational Procedure, 23 pp. Deinze, Belgium: Creasel.
30.
Anon. (1996). Daphtoxkit F™ magna: Crustacean Toxicity Screening Test for Freshwater. Standard Operational Procedure, 16 pp. Deinze, Belgium: Creasel.
31.
Anon. (1996). Algaltoxkit F™: Freshwater Toxicity Test with Microalgae. Standard Operational Procedure, 28 pp. Deinze, Belgium: Creasel.
32.
Anon. (1996). Protoxkit F™: Freshwater Toxicity Test with a Ciliate Protozoan. Standard Operation Procedure, 16 pp. Deinze, Belgium: Creasel.
33.
ThomulkaK.W., McGeeD.J., & LangeJ.H. (1992). Evaluation of organic compounds in water using Photobacterium phosphoreum and Vibrio harveyi bioassays. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin1, 815–820.
34.
Anon. (1991). DIN 38412-L34. Determination of the inhibitory effect of wastewater on the light emission of Photobacterium phosphoreum (luminescent bacteria wastewater test).12 pp. Berlin, Germany: Beuth Verlag GmbH.
35.
BlaiseC., ForghaniR., LegaultR., GuzzoJ., & DubowM.S. (1994). A bacterial toxicity assay performed with microplates, microluminometry and Microtox reagent. Biotechniques6, 932–937.
36.
EhrichmannH., EisenträgerA., MollerM., & DottW. (1997). Effect of storage conditions of soil on ecotoxicological assessment. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation39, 55–59.
37.
ThomulkaK.W., McGeeD.J., & LangeJ.H. (1993). Use of the bioluminescent bacterium Photobacterium phosphoreum to detect potentially biohazardous materials in water. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology51, 538–544.
38.
ToussaintM.W., SheddT.R., van der SchalieW.H., & LeatherG.R. (1995). A comparison of standard acute toxicity tests with rapid-screening toxicity tests. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry14, 907–915.
39.
SvensonA., & EdsholtE. (1996). Sediment contaminants and Microtox toxicity tested in a direct contact exposure test. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality11, 293–300.
