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Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic profoundly impacted the wellbeing of students and teachers around the world. Job demands-resource theory has been an integral theoretical framework to understand how workers navigate strenuous conditions. Further, the study demands-resource model was conceptualized to understand how students’ school-based responsibilities affect their wellbeing and performance. There is a gap, however, in unifying these models to understand how teachers’ and students’ wellbeing are co-influenced by school-based demands and resources. To address this, I conceptualized the school demands-resource model to explore the intersections of this phenomena. Through autoethnography, I reflected upon my own professional practices as a public school music teacher facilitating learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings generated provide new understandings into the intersections of job demands-resources and study demands-resources and how public health regulations impacted music program function. Increased school demands included physical distancing, teaching and learning without singing or movement, and increased sanitation of classroom materials, but were alleviated via successful job/study crafting. School resources were also affected by pandemic-related health protocols, including changes in classroom relationships, school materials, and self-efficacy. Implications for future research include exploring how classroom relationships and job/study crafting may optimize engagement and wellbeing in school music programs.

Keywords

Autoethnography COVID-19 job demands-resource theory music education study demands-resource theory

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic had profound impacts on the wellbeing of students, teachers, and education systems around the world (Chan et al., 2021; Herman et al., 2021; Pattison et al., 2021; Sokal et al., 2021). Teachers were burdened with the responsibility of navigating school closures, adapting to online teaching platforms, and adjusted their practices to accommodate public health regulations during periods of in-class learning (Laidlaw, 2023; López-Fernández et al., 2021; Pattison et al., 2021; Sokal et al., 2021). As Chan et al. (2021) stated: “Teachers have been facing numerous challenges since the start of the pandemic, but limited attention has been placed on their professional well-being” (p. 534). Teachers have among the highest rates of oganizational burnout among all professions across the world (Falecki & Mann, 2015; Papastylianou et al., 2009) as teacher attrition remains a significant global issue (Beltman et al., 2011). Falecki and Mann (2015) simply noted that “if teachers’ emotional, physical and mental exhaustion from excessive and prolonged stress is not managed, teachers can become burned out” (p. 176). Similarly, the COVID-19 pandemic profoundly impacted the mental health of youth (Badar et al., 2022; Salmon, 2021). Many students expressed heightened levels of anxiety of returning to in-person learning (Schwartz et al., 2021) while concern for the mental health of youth and children remained prioritized areas of concern among teachers and parents (Fontenelle‑Tereshchuk, 2021; Hash, 2021).

The field of music education was particularly affected as many local public health jurisdictions prohibited singing and playing wind instruments in schools. Consequently, music teachers and students across Canada had to pivot core aspects of their school programming to accommodate these changes. Music teachers faced higher work hours and experienced increased stress and anxiety while attempting to fulfil their teaching responsibilities (Laidlaw, 2023; Cheng & Liam, 2021; Kaleli, 2021). Reacting to these measures, Choral Canada (2022) stated: “Singing has been banned or heavily restricted in Canadian schools during the COVID-19 pandemic, leaving students without vital music programs in their school that not only benefit musical learning, but also student mental health and wellbeing” (para. 1). As a practicing public school music teacher throughout the pandemic, I navigated a plethora of abrupt policy changes to accommodate regularly changing public health regulations to support my students’ academic growth and wellbeing. These circumstances led to the formation of the research question: “How did public health regulations affect my music teaching practice and capacity to support my students during the COVID-19 pandemic?” As this is a self-reflective qualitative inquiry, autoethnography (Ellis et al., 2011) was chosen as an appropriate methodology to explore this topic. I focused on my professional experiences, exploring the intersections between my teaching responsibilities with my students’ learning expectations during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conceptual Framework

To interpret the school culture of music pedagogical practices during the pandemic, I conceptualized the school demands-resource model, integrating the job demands-resource theory (Bakker & de Vries, 2021; Demerouti et al., 2001; Demerouti & Bakker, 2023) with the study demands-resource model (Lesener et al., 2020). The study demands-resource model was a recent conceptualization formulated upon the extensive empirical findings from the job demands-resource theoretical research and was a novel framework adapted to understand how extraneous learning conditions affect youths’ academic achievement (Lesener et al., 2020; Ma & Jiang, 2023; Wei et al., 2002). For this analysis, I have merged tenets of the job demands-resource theory (my teaching responsibilities) with the study demands-resource theory (my students’ learning responsibilities) to understand the co-influencing intersections of this phenomena, which I have categorized as school demands-resources.

Job Demands-Resource Theory

Job demands-resource theory originated as a theoretical framework to explain stress and burnout among workers across various organizations. Through the job demands-resource theoretical lens, workers’ wellbeing is maintained when there are ample resources to accommodate the ever-changing demands in the workplace (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Demerouti et al., 2001; de Wal et al., 2020). In the education context, resources may be understood as a variety of different factors, including: school leadership (de Wal et al., 2020; Granzera et al., 2015; Gu & Day, 2013; Herman et al., 2021), teacher efficacy (Chan et al., 2021; Pattison et al., 2021; Soncini et al., 2021), opportunities for professional development (de Wal et al., 2020; Granzera et al., 2015; Munroe, 2021); and relationships with colleagues (Falecki & Mann, 2015; Russell et al., 2020). Conversely, job demands may be variables such as general workload, time constraints, disciplinary issues, among other factors (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Demerouti et al., 2001). Under the job demands-resource theoretical interpretation, workers are at risk of being unwell or burning out when the demands of the profession outweigh the resources over prolonged periods of time (Falecki & Mann, 2015). However, Beltman et al. (2011) importantly note that individuals respond differently to times of adversity and that predicting teachers’ potential for burnout is difficult.

While job demands-resource theory was formulated decades ago (Demerouti et al., 2001) there have been ongoing theoretical revisions and enhancements of the framework. Bakker et al. (2014) outlined the “building blocks” of the evolving job demands-resource theory: (a) flexibility (the applicability of the framework to understand phenomena in any work environment); (b) two processes (understanding how job demands and resources contribute to health impairment and motivational processes); (c) job demands x resources interactions (the oscillating variables between job demands and resources and how the prevalence of either variable may predict occupational wellbeing); (d) personal resources (individuals’ capacity to engage in positive self-evaluation and resilience skills); and (e) job crafting (workers’ agency to manipulate their work environments to ensure success).

Study Demands-Resource Theory

The study demands-resource model (Lesener et al., 2020) was a recent conceptualization. As the COVID-19 pandemic led to significant strain on students’ wellbeing (Salmon, 2021), scholars began utilizing this conceptual model to explore students’ risk of burnout in educational contexts. Through the study demands-resource model, scholars interpret learning as a form of labour and explore how learning conditions affect students’ performance and wellbeing (Lesener et al., 2020). Excessive study demands may lead to high stress, emotional exhaustion, poor academic performance, or other negative wellbeing consequences (Wei et al., 2022). Conversely, students’ operating in educational contexts with reasonable study demands, while supported with ample study resources (e.g., spaces, learning materials, mentors, etc.) may contribute to positive student achievement and mental wellbeing (Lesener et al., 2020). It is imperative for students to be successful in their learning, as numerous studies have indicated a strong correlation between students’ engagement and positive mental health (Ma et al., 2023).

School Demands-Resource Innovation

Teachers and students both play an integral role in co-influencing wellbeing. Students benefit from efficacious teachers, as teachers’ positive attitudes and relationships with student bodies significantly influence students’ study experiences (Ma & Jiang, 2023). Teachers also benefit from positive relationships with students, as a consistent predictor of teachers’ wellbeing are their perception of their own self-efficacy in handling classroom management issues (Herman et al., 2021). Through the proposed school demands-resource model, school-based responsibilities are not isolated to teachers’ job demands-resources, nor are they limited to students’ study demands-resources. Rather, I argue that school-based expectations are a shared experience between teachers and students and may be understood through school demands (e.g., successful learning experiences) and school resources (e.g., learning spaces and materials available to facilitate lessons). Through an autoethnographic inquiry, I critically reflected upon how pandemic-related school demands (e.g., adapting curricula to public health regulations) and corresponding school resources (e.g., classroom space, musical instruments) affected the collective wellbeing in my classroom.

Methodology

Autoethnography consists of a multitude of definitions and interpretations on the research approach (Doloriet & Sambrook, 2012; Ellis et al., 2011). While there are various understandings of autoethnography, Boylorn and Orbe (2014) defined it as “cultural analysis through personal narrative” (p. 16). Bloor and Wood (2011) provided a more elaborate interpretation, describing the research practice as “reportage of the reporter’s own personal and emotional life, that is explicitly informed by social science concepts and perspectives, by sociological introspection” (p. 19). Tienari (2019) argued that autoethnography is fundamentally about individualistic identity, stating: “Autoethnography is about studying a community through the author’s personal experience” (p. 576). Doloriet and Sambrook (2012) categorized three approaches to autoethnography: (a) evocative interpretivist (emotionally laden narratives exploring personal experiences through story, performance, and conversations); (b) analytical (increased emphasis on analysis strategies and reflexive approaches); and (c) post-modernism (problematizing traditional autoethnographic discourse by examining the political underpinnings and purposes of the research).

Utilizing autoethnography to investigate wellness is well-established, as scholars have historically unpacked their own experiences to better understand trauma (Wright, 2009), physical and/or emotional health issues (Atkins, 2014; Grantham et al., 2021), neurodivergence (Hoben & Hessen, 2021), among other wellness inquiries. There are also examples of autoethnographic inquiries to understand music-making culture during the pandemic (e.g., Biernes & Randles, 2023).

I engaged in an analytical autoethnography to explore my personal experiences in relation to the global COVID-19 pandemic. I unpacked and reflected upon a teaching experience as I accommodated curricular-based pedagogies to adhere to extensive public health regulations (e.g., no singing, physical distancing, etc.). To supplement this process, I re-visited classroom photographs, personal lesson plans, and newspaper articles during these circumstances. Using artefacts and other memorabilia to support the autoethnographic process is well-documented and encouraged (Ellis et al., 2011). Utilizing these artefacts as evocative stimuli, I engaged in an auto-interview (Boufoy-Bastick, 2004), textually documenting my feelings and recollections of teaching practices during the pandemic. I generated a vignette outlining the nature of my experiences teaching music during the pandemic and explored how school demands and resources affected music-making practices in my classroom. Including this narrative was essential to illuminate connections between these professional experiences and the proposed school demands-resource theoretical model. Both the textual transcript of the auto-interview and vignette were reflexively thematically analyzed (Braun & Clarke, 2006) based on two pre-set codes: (a) school demands; and (b) school resources. While the thematic analysis was conducted deductively based on these pre-set codes, various codes emerged regarding context-specific job (teaching) demands and resources, as well as students’ study demands and resources. As all writing is “positioned” (Creswell, 2007, p. 179), I reflexively acknowledge my own positionality as a white, queer, cisgender male raised in a suburban community in Western Canada. As I served dual roles as both a school union representative (and associations with the labour movement) as well as an accomplished, award-winning music educator, I recognize the potentiality of unintentional biases and interests via my analysis. My interpretations are limited to these positional lived experiences, but also strengthened via my immediate inside knowledge of school function during these times. Findings are not generalizable, but may be transferable to similar contexts.

Vignette: Music-Making in a COVID Frame

It is a cold, early Monday morning in February. I take a sip of my coffee as I prepare my music lessons for my students for the school day. Our community is in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Manitoba government has issued staunch provincial health protocols around teaching music in schools. These mandates have called for teachers to ensure two-meter distancing between students, compulsory mask wearing, enhanced cleaning practices, and have strictly prohibited singing and playing wind instruments indoors. As I assess my classroom for its viability to adhere to these mandates, I notice in various spots the green painters’ tape has begun to peel. I have personally measured and marked spots spaced 2 m throughout the room, taping an “X” to visually indicate each students’ spot. I grab the roll of tape, lean over, and begin crawling across the floor re-taping the marked positions. Wiping the dust from my pant legs, I grab the bucket of xylophone mallets and take them to the staffroom kitchen. I briskly washed them with a disinfectant spray, as they had not yet been sanitized after being used by yesterdays’ previous class.

I return to the class and begin to set-up the classroom for the day, individually setting up each xylophone throughout the room. During normal circumstances, I would have students set up their own instruments, but I am trying to mitigate unnecessary movement among students in the classroom.

I pause and reflect upon my responsibilities at-hand. Today, I am instructing our Grade 3 and four students for 41 classes throughout the day. Students have become increasingly restless as I try generating creative pedagogies to keep them engaged. As we cannot sing indoors, we have been predominantly learning melodies on our xylophones and other instrumental musical learning experiences. As we strive to maintain physical distancing, it’s quite difficult to include any movement learning experiences. “Okay,” I think to myself. “We will start with the xylophones, transition by watching a body percussion video on YouTube, then end with the violins. The violins were recently purchased for our school program and students are quite enthusiastic to learn them. I look up as my teacher colleague arrives at my classroom door with her students. Her students enter the music room, following the freshly placed green arrows on the classroom floor. The children take their seats at xylophones physically distanced throughout the room.

“Oh shoot . . .” I think to myself. “I forgot we have a new student, which brings the class size to 21. I only have 20 xylophones. Under regular circumstances, we could share. But with protocols we are not supposed to share physical items. Quickly improvising, I ask two students if they could take turns. One will watch, while the other listens. Then they will switch (after I sanitize the instrument). They look disappointed, but they agree.

After settling the class, I upload the musical notes for Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star on the projector to practice the music together as an ensemble. I grab my guitar, begin strumming the chords and count the class into the song. We begin playing and the class is maintaining a steady rhythm and staying together quite well. Intertwined with the xylophone playing I subtly hear through some masks, “. . . how I wonder what you are!” I stop strumming my guitar and show the peace symbol with my fingers (our non-verbal cue to stop playing). I remind my students that although it would be lovely to sing, we are not allowed to sing indoors. Many of my students looked confused and disappointed, as they certainly do not understand why they are not allowed to sing. We resume playing together as an instrumental ensemble. As we continue playing, I am interrupted—one of my Grade 3 students is purposefully playing wrong notes. His friends have lost focus and are laughing. Shortly thereafter, the class became disengaged. I take the cue from my student body and decide it’s time to switch into a new learning experience.

“Okay, folks. We’re going to switch things up now. Please hand me your xylophone mallets so I can clean them for the next class. We’re going to have a body break!” I begin moving across the classroom collecting students’ xylophone mallets and putting them in a bucket for cleaning. I sit down at my desk and turn on a body percussion follow along video from YouTube. My students begin standing and following along, creatively moving to the music. During this time, I take out the disinfectant spray and begin wiping down the used mallets. I am interrupted, however, as I see one of the students leaving his spot and moving toward the projector screen. I called to him, “Please stay in your spot! I know you are just having fun, but we need to stay in our spots.” He looks surprised, as it seems he was not aware that he had even left his spot, but nods and returns to his spot and continues the activity. I have been brainstorming on how to incorporate some movement into my lessons. It has been mentally challenging trying to think of new ways to integrate these forms of musical learning while following the pandemic protocols. I have not received any formal professional development to support my practice. As the only teacher instructing early years music in my school, I feel quite isolated.

As the music video wraps up, I begin handing out violins to students in the class. We begin the mini-lesson with some bowing exercises, a call-and-response type of activity. I play a rhythm and invite my students to match it. Before I begin, I notice a student is holding her violin upside down, opposite arms holding the bow and violin. I quickly run over to my desk and sanitize my hands and go to help her reposition her fingers and holding position. I go back to my desk and re-sanitize my hands. “Hey, look! I can play Hot Cross Buns! Watch!,” yells one student from across the room. My class seems to be very engaged and appreciative of the experience.

I check the clock and realize we need to clean up before the next class arrives. I begin collecting their violins and hang them on the wall. I will need to sanitize them before the next class enters. “Okay, folks! I hope you had fun and had a great time!” I exclaim as they exit the music room.

Discussion

Through the school demands-resource theoretical innovation, I analyzed the vignette through pre-set codes of: (a) school demands; and (b) school resources.

School Demands

The thematic analysis indicated that there were significant job demands placed both upon myself as a music teacher, but also heightened study demands upon my student body, contributing to increased stress within the classroom. Throughout the vignette were examples of these heightened school demands, notably the adherence to two-meter physical distancing, no singing and/or playing wind instruments, as well as increased sanitation of spaces and classroom materials. Job demands vary and comprise the social, organizational, physical, and/or organizational components of labour and consequently, variable tasks may necessitate sustained physical, cognitive, and/or emotional efforts to achieve such functions (Demerouti et al., 2001; Bakker et al., 2023). As Bakker et al. (2023) acknowledged, some professional fields may require higher physical demands (e.g., construction), while others may necessitate higher cognitive demands (e.g., software development). Through this particular analysis, it was evident that I, as a music teacher, had increased physical, cognitive, and emotional job demands throughout the pandemic. During these circumstances I engaged in increased physical activity by routinely sanitizing instruments and upholding physical distancing indicators throughout the classroom, was cognitively exerted to brainstorm new pedagogies to engage my student body, while also being emotionally burdened as I was concerned for the safety and development of my student body. Students’ study demands were similarly expanded during the pandemic, as their learning was confined to stationary positions (e.g., limited movement and/or tactile learning), inability to sing and/or closely collaborate with their peers (thus impairing the affective and cognitive components of their musical learning). These findings are corroborated with other findings on the declining mental health of teachers (Laidlaw, 2023; Kaleli, 2021; Sokal et al., 2021) and students (Badar et al., 2022; Salmon, 2021) during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Another key finding related to job/study crafting in the music classroom. To navigate high job demands, job crafting is the conceptual understanding of how employees optimize and/or individualize their working conditions to be successful (Bakker et al., 2023; Demerouti & Bakker, 2023). Throughout the vignette, there were various examples of both my job crafting and my students’ study crafting, as we were collectively successful in music-making during these circumstances. Job/study crafting manifested in the form of new/adaptive pedagogies (e.g., introducing the violin, stationary movement activities, relying upon xylophone, and so forth). While students could not sing, explore wind instruments (e.g., the recorder), or be in close proximity to their peers (Manitoba Government, 2020), it was clear that they successfully navigated this learning environment and were still able to achieve class-based learning objectives. These experiences illuminated how my student body and I optimized our materials readily available to engage in music-making and provided new understandings of job/study crafting in music education contexts.

School Resources

Public health protocols not only affected school demands during the COVID-19 pandemic, but also impacted school resources available to support music teaching and learning. In my professional practice, there were various school materials available to counteract these circumstantial changes. The introduction of a class set of violins was a very positive addition to our school music program, benefitting both my capacity to teach (job demand) and for students to learn (study demand). New classroom resources (such as the violins) were immensely helpful as this provided new artistic experiences for our student body. Other school resources that supported musical learning during this period also included technology (e.g., a computer and classroom projector), class sets of musical instruments (e.g., xylophones), and a generally spacious music room (that was able to accommodate two-meter physical distance). These school resources positively supported both my professional practice and my students’ learning.

Social relationships have been long identified as an important resource to support employees’ capacity to fulfil workplace responsibilities, as well as students’ capacity to learn (Bakker et al., 2023; Demerouti & Bakker, 2023; Ma & Jiang, 2023). School relationships were compromised by health protocols mandating physical distancing, no singing, and a new demeanour of enforcement. There is ample research affirming workplace relationships as an essential job resource to promote workers’ function (Collie et al., 2017; Johnson et al., 2014; Granzera et al., 2015; Pattison, et al., 2021; Russell et al., 2020). Also, teachers serve a crucial role in supporting students’ achievement and overall wellbeing (Ma & Jiang, 2023). The requirement to remain physically distanced further impacted classroom relationships. In addition to being physically distant from my student body, there was apprehension to be close to my students. This anxiety often led to zealous hand sanitizing, remaining physically distant from the student body while I taught, and being indecisive as to whether I should allow students close to me. These immense public health regulations required a certain level of enforcement to ensure such practices were upheld. There were many instances when students failed to remain physically distant or attempted to sing indoors, resulting in me acting in an authoritative role. Although upholding the regulations was conducted with positive intent to ensure positive health among the school community, I perceived these interactions to negatively affect my relationship with some students as this persona was so unlike my general demeanour. Me enforcement in the cessation of various forms of music-making (e.g., singing, movement-to-music) appeared to exacerbate these feelings of distanced relationship between my student body and I.

There appeared to be a declined sense of my feelings of my own (and my students’) self-efficacy during the pandemic. Workers’ self-efficacy is a crucial job resource that must be maintained for workers to remain physically and emotionally well in the workplace (Demerouti et al., 2001; Falecki & Mann, 2015). Self-efficacy has been generally understood as the degree in which individuals believe they will be successful to achieve specific goals (Granzera et al., 2015). I, at times, struggled to achieve physical distancing standards with students, was constantly attempting to brainstorm new lessons to facilitate meaningful learning experiences, and was challenged with classroom management difficulties. Students’ disengagement and classroom management challenges can negatively impact teachers’ self-efficacy and may be reflective of their own confidence in achieving classroom expectations (Hong, 2012; Saloviita & Pakarinen, 2021). This decreased feeling of self-efficacy was a contributing factor to both my students’ and my own confidence to be successful in music-making during the pandemic.

Implications and Conclusion

This inquiry has illuminated new understandings between the intersections of job demands-resource theory and study demands-resource theory via the school demands-resource conceptual innovation. Through autoethnography, I demonstrated that the extensive COVID-19 school restrictions (e.g., physical distancing, singing prohibited, etc.) were demands jointly shared by myself (as a teacher) and my student body. Consequently, these school demands were strenuous and necessitated physical, cognitive, and emotional adaptations to teach and learn. However, evidence of job/study crafting via the implementation of new pedagogical learning experiences helped ensure successful music-making practices in our school community. The thematic analysis of this inquiry reiterated the importance of school-based relationships and their impacts on teacher/student wellbeing and efficacy in the teaching and learning process. A considerable detriment to my own vitality as an educator was the perceived strain in classroom relationships (largely due to extra school demands and limited resources to mitigate these stressors). There are various implications for school music teachers and students who may need to navigate future, strenuous educational climates. While public health orders and/or school district policies may be beyond the control of individual teachers and students, prioritizing pedagogical focuses in community-building and cultivating social relationships would be recommended. Reflecting upon my own experiences, the predominant focus of my practice was in achieving curricular outcomes, adapting my practice to stringent public health orders (e.g., physical distancing and enhanced sanitation). Highly strenuous circumstances (such as the COVID-19 pandemic) required an enhanced focus in building strong social bonds with the classroom. As such, emphasizing learning experiences that are community-building should be the apex focus during strenuous times. Another implication for school music teachers adjusting their practices during difficult scenarios is of the importance in job crafting. Within the vignette, I struggled to accommodate various music pedagogies to achieve curricular outcomes and support students’ learning. Upon systematic reflection and analysis, I would recommend other music teachers to emphasize pedagogies that are within their immediate technical skill, expertise, or interest. As many music-making learning experiences were negated by public health orders (e.g., singing indoors), I could have explored learning in outdoor contexts, benefiting from an alternate, spacious learning environment (e.g., singing while distanced, benefitting from sunshine and fresh air, less emphasis on sanitation, etc.). Further, I could have adjusted my pedagogical focus into few learning experiences within my expertise (e.g., learning music via stringed instruments and music technology), as opposed to incorporating a wide array of my typical pedagogies within the stringent public health parameters. While job crafting may be manifest in a variety of ways among different music teachers and school communities, the underlying principle of optimizing workplace demands and resources is relevant to many music teachers.

Footnotes

Author Contribution(s)

Jordan Laidlaw: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Project administration; Writing—original draft; Writing—review & editing.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Jordan Laidlaw

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Adapting music education to pandemic regulations: Conceptualizing the school demands-resource theoretical innovation through autoethnography

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Conceptual Framework

Job Demands-Resource Theory

Study Demands-Resource Theory

School Demands-Resource Innovation

Methodology

Vignette: Music-Making in a COVID Frame

Discussion

School Demands

School Resources

Implications and Conclusion

Footnotes

Author Contribution(s)

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iD

References