Partnership Trajectories and Older Adults’ Supportive and Strained Friendship Ties: Do Patterns Differ for Men and Women?

Abstract

We examine prospectively associations between partnership statuses/transitions and friend support/strain, and gender differences therein, among U.S. older adults. Data are from the 2006–2022 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (N = 13,495). Multivariable analyses are adjusted for health, sociodemographic, and personality covariates, and baseline friend support and strain. Married and cohabiting persons report less friendship support and strain than their divorced, widowed, or never married counterparts, with married and cohabiting men reporting significantly less support than their female counterparts. We find modest evidence that the recent death of a spouse weakens friend support and increases strain. Persons who formed new partnerships during the study period report more friend support and strain, although effects attenuate after adjusting for baseline friendship ties. Our results are broadly consistent with “marriage as a greedy institution” perspectives; we discuss the potential implications of partnered men’s tenuous friendships for their later-life well-being.

Keywords

friendship gender marital status relationship trajectories singlehood widowhood

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ajrouch

K. J.

Blandon

A. Y.

Antonucci

T. C.

(2005). Social networks among men and women: The effects of age and socioeconomic status. Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60(6), S311–S317. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/60.6.s311

Ayalon

Koren

(2015). Marriage, second couplehood, divorce, and singlehood in old age. In Lichtenberg

P. A.

Mast

B. T.

Carpenter

B. D.

Loebach Wetherell

(Eds.), APA handbook of clinical geropsychology, Vol. 2. Assessment, treatment, and issues of later life (pp. 617–644). American Psychological Association.

Ayalon

Levkovich

(2019). A systematic review of research on social networks of older adults. The Gerontologist, 59(3), e164–e176. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnx218

Blieszner

Ogletree

A. M.

Adams

R. G.

(2019). Friendship in later life: A research agenda. Innovation in Aging, 3(1), igz005. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igz005

Boerner

Jopp

D. S.

Carr

Sosinsky

Kim

S. K.

(2014). “His” and “her” marriage? The role of positive and negative marital characteristics in global marital satisfaction among older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(4), 579–589. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu032

Brown

S. L.

Kawamura

(2010). Relationship quality among cohabitors and marrieds in older adulthood. Social Science Research, 39(5), 777–786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.04.010

Brown

S. L.

Manning

W. D.

(2022). Relationship quality in midlife: A comparison of dating, living apart together, cohabitation, and marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 84(3), 860–878. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12813

Brown

S. L.

Wright

M. R.

(2017). Marriage, cohabitation, and divorce in later life. Innovation in Aging, 1(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igx015

Carr

(2010). New perspectives on the dual process model (DPM): What have we learned? What questions remain? OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying, 61(4), 371–380. https://doi.org/10.2190/om.61.4.g

10.

Carr

(2023). Aging in America. University of California Press.

11.

Carr

Choi

S. L.

(2025a). Do friend support and strain moderate the association between physical limitations and older adults’ depressive symptoms? Research on Aging, Advance online publication, 01640275251372870. https://doi.org/10.1177/01640275251372870

12.

Carr

Choi

S. L.

(2025b). Childlessness and mental health among U.S. older adults: Do associations differ by marital status and gender? The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 80(7), gbaf073. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaf073

13.

Choi

S. L.

Carr

(2023). Older adults’ relationship trajectories and estate planning. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 44(2), 356–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-022-09839-y

14.

Choi

S. L.

Carr

Namkung

E. H.

(2023). Telehealth use among older adults with sensory, cognitive, and physical impairments: A substitute or supplement to traditional care? The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 78(10), 1735–1746. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbad098

15.

Chopik

W. J.

Yang

Lucas

R. E.

(2025). Evaluating associations between friendship characteristics and mental, physical, and cognitive health. Research on Aging, Advance online publication, 01640275251408745. https://doi.org/10.1177/01640275251408745

16.

Cole

(2024). A qualitative investigation of the emotional, physiological, financial, and legal consequences of online romance scams in the United States. Journal of Economic Criminology, 6(2), 100108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2024.100108

17.

Coser

(1974). Greedy institutions: Patterns of undivided commitment. Free Press.

18.

DePaulo

(2023). Single and flourishing: Transcending the deficit narratives of single life. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 15(3), 389–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12525

19.

English

Carstensen

L. L.

(2014). Selective narrowing of social networks across adulthood is associated with improved emotional experience in daily life. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(2), 195–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025413515404

20.

Fingerman

K. L.

Hay

E. L.

Birditt

K. S.

(2004). The best of ties, the worst of ties: Close, problematic, and ambivalent social relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(3), 792–808. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00053.x

21.

Fischer

C. S.

(2011). Still connected: Family and friends in America since 1970: Russell Sage Foundation.

22.

Fischer

J. L.

Sollie

D. L.

Sorell

G. T.

Green

S. K.

(1989). Marital status and career stage influences on social networks of young adults. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51(2), 521–534. https://doi.org/10.2307/352513

23.

Gerlach

L. B.

Solway

E. S.

Malani

P. N.

(2024). Social isolation and loneliness in older adults. JAMA, 331(23), 2058. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2024.3456

24.

Hank

Steinbach

(2018). Families and health: A review. In Doblhammer

Gumà

(Eds.), A demographic perspective on gender, family and health in Europe (pp. 23–39). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72356-3_3

25.

Iveniuk

(2019). Social networks, role-relationships, and personality in older adulthood. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 74(5), 815–826. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx120

26.

Jaccard

Turrisi

(2003) Interaction effects in multiple regression (p. 72). Sage.

27.

Kalmijn

(2003). Friendship networks over the life course: A test of the dyadic withdrawal hypothesis using survey data on couples. Social Networks, 25(3), 231–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-8733(03)00010-8

28.

Kalmijn

(2007). Gender differences in the effects of divorce, widowhood and remarriage on intergenerational support: Does marriage protect fathers? Social Forces, 85(3), 1079–1104. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2007.0043

29.

Kalmijn

(2024). Comparing neighbors and friends in age-related network changes. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 79(9), gbae108. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbae108

30.

Karney

B. R.

(2021). Socioeconomic status and intimate relationships. Annual Review of Psychology, 72(1), 391–414. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-051920-013658

31.

Klaus

(2021). Differential effects of widowhood on network and support. Journal of Family Issues, 42(12), 2755–2781. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x20988068

32.

Lachman

M. E.

Weaver

S. L.

(1997) The Midlife Development Inventory (MIDI) Personality Scales: Scale construction and scoring (Vol. 7, pp. 1–9). Brandeis University.

33.

Langa

K. M.

Plassman

B. L.

Wallace

R. B.

Herzog

A. R.

Heeringa

S. G.

Ofstedal

M. B.

Burke

J. R.

Fisher

G. G.

Fultz

N. H.

Hurd

M. D.

Potter

G. G.

Rodgers

W. L.

Steffens

D. C.

Weir

D. R.

Willis

R. J.

(2005). The aging, demographics, and memory study: Study design and methods. Neuroepidemiology, 25(4), 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1159/000087448

34.

Lee

(2022). Multiple types of friends and life stage differences in friendship. Social Networks, 71(1), 32–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2022.06.001

35.

Mair

C. A.

(2026). The value of friendship among aging populations without partners and children across 87 low-middle-and high-income countries. Research on Aging, Advance online publication, 01640275251412873. https://doi.org/10.1177/01640275251412873

36.

Margolis

Verdery

A. M.

(2017). Older adults without close kin in the United States. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72(4), 688–693. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx068

37.

Moremen

R. D.

(2008). The downside of friendship: Sources of strain in older women’s friendships. Journal of Women & Aging, 20(1-2), 169–187. https://doi.org/10.1300/j074v20n01_12

38.

Y. T.

Huo

Gleason

M. E.

Neff

L. A.

Charles

S. T.

Fingerman

K. L.

(2021). Friendships in old age: Daily encounters and emotional well-being. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 76(3), 551–562. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa007

39.

Nicolaisen

Thorsen

(2017). What are friends for? Friendships and loneliness over the lifespan—From 18 to 79 years. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 84(2), 126–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415016655166

40.

Niedzwiedz

C. L.

Richardson

E. A.

Tunstall

Shortt

N. K.

Mitchell

R. J.

Pearce

J. R.

(2016). The relationship between wealth and loneliness among older people across Europe: Is social participation protective? Preventive Medicine, 91, 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.07.016

41.

Office of the U.S. Surgeon General . (2023). Our epidemic of loneliness and isolation: The U.S. surgeon General’s advisory on the healing effects of social connection and community. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-social-connection-advisory.pdf

42.

Perry

B. L.

Pescosolido

B. A.

(2012). Social network dynamics and biographical disruption: The case of “first-timers” with mental illness. American Journal of Sociology, 118(1), 134–175. https://doi.org/10.1086/666377

43.

Radler

B. T.

Ryff

C. D.

(2010). Who participates? Accounting for longitudinal retention in the MIDUS national study of health and well-being. Journal of Aging and Health, 22(3), 307–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264309358617

44.

Radloff

L. S.

(1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306

45.

Raley

R. K.

Sweeney

M. M.

Wondra

(2015). The growing racial and ethnic divide in U.S. marriage patterns. The Future of Children, 25(2), 89–109. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2015.0014

46.

Rook

K. S.

(1990). Parallels in the study of social support and social strain. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 118–132. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1990.9.1.118

47.

Rosenthal

C. J.

(1985). Kinkeeping in the familial division of labor. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47(4), 965–974. https://doi.org/10.2307/352340

48.

Sarkisian

Gerstel

(2008). Till marriage do us part: Adult children’s relationships with their parents. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(2), 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00487.x

49.

Sarkisian

Gerstel

(2016). Does singlehood isolate or integrate? Examining the link between marital status and ties to kin, friends, and neighbors. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 33(3), 361–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407515597564

50.

Shapiro

Cooney

T. M.

(2007). Divorce and intergenerational relations across the life course. Advances in Life Course Research, 12(2), 191–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1040-2608(07)12007-4

51.

Shaw

B. A.

Krause

Liang

Bennett

(2007). Tracking changes in social relations throughout late life. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 62(2), S90–S99. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/62.2.s90

52.

Silverman

P. R.

(2005). Widow to widow (2nd ed.). Routledge.

53.

Smith

Ryan

Larkina

Sonnega

Weir

(2023). Psychosocial and lifestyle questionnaire 2006 - 2022. University of Michigan. https://hrs.isr.umich.edu/publications/biblio/12903 (accessed 12 February 2026).

54.

Springer

K. W.

Hankivsky

Bates

L. M.

(2012). Gender and health: Relational, intersectional, and biosocial approaches. Social Science & Medicine, 74(11), 1661–1666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.03.001

55.

StataCorp . (2023). Stata 18. Statistical software. StataCorp LLC.

56.

Stern

Krämer

M. D.

Schumacher

MacDonald

Richter

(2024). Differences between lifelong singles and ever-partnered individuals in big five personality traits and life satisfaction. Psychological Science, 35(12), 1364–1381. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976241286865

57.

Stokes

J. E.

Moorman

S. M.

(2018). Influence of the social network on married and unmarried older adults’ mental health. The Gerontologist, 58(6), 1109–1113. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnx151

58.

Stroebe

Schut

(2010). The dual process model of coping with bereavement: A decade on. OMEGA-journal of Death and Dying, 61(4), 273–289. https://doi.org/10.2190/om.61.4.b

59.

Thompson

Smith

M. A.

McNeill

Pollet

T. V.

(2024). Friendships, loneliness and psychological wellbeing in older adults: A limit to the benefit of the number of friends. Ageing & Society, 44(5), 1090–1115. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0144686x22000666

60.

Walen

H. R.

Lachman

M. E.

(2000). Social support and strain from partner, family, and friends: Costs and benefits for men and women in adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17(1), 5–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407500171001

61.

Wrzus

Hänel

Wagner

Neyer

F. J.

(2013). Social network changes and life events across the life span: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 53–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028601

62.

Zhang

Hsieh

Lai

W. H.

(2023). Social relationships in later life: Does marital status matter? Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 40(9), 2946–2968. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075231163112

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.30 MB

0.00 MB