Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

This paper suggests that the use of digital and biometric technology in migration management creates an ecosystem that may mitigate the risks of unethical recruitment, malpractices by intermediaries, immigration law infringement, labor rights abuse and irregular migration. Digitalization is essential for migration governance, as it eliminates intermediaries, prevents exploitation by agents, reduces recruiting expenses, expedites the recruitment process and combats human trafficking. Using Malaysia as a case study, this research explores the technology-migration nexus and analyzes the state’s battle against irregular migrants in two aspects: Interior enforcement and foreign worker management. Digital technologies implemented with labor law reforms have facilitated an orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration as outlined in SDG 10.7.

Keywords

biometrics digitalization foreign worker management interior enforcement labor migration technology-migration nexus

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Alhadjri

(2019) Good intentions fall short as migrant amnesty logistics prove a nightmare. Malaysiakini, Available at: https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/505443

Anderson

(2021) Managing labour migration in Malaysia: foreign workers and the challenges of ‘control’ beyond liberal democracies. Third World Quarterly 42(1): 86–104.

Azizi

(2018) Maid Online System: First Batch of Employers to Welcome New Maids This Week. New Straits Times. Available at: https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2018/01/328742/maid-online-system-first-batch-employers-welcome-new-maids-week

Beduschi

(2021) International migration management in the age of artificial intelligence. Migration Studies 9(3): 576–596.

Bestinet (2024a) Bio-medical system. Available at: https://www.bestinet.com.my/bms/

Bestinet (2024b) Foreign workers centralized management system (FWCMS). Available at: https://www.bestinet.com.my/fwcms/

Borneo Post (2011a) Foreign nationals entering country to be monitored via system beginning. Available at: https://www.theborneopost.com/2011/03/18/foreign-nationals-entering-country-to-be-monitored-via-system-beginning-june-1-%E2%80%94-muhyiddin/

Borneo Post (2011b) Biometric registration of foreign workers starts. Available at: https://www.theborneopost.com/2011/07/14/biometric-registration-of-foreign-workers-starts/

Borneo Post (2011c) Biometric programme registers 390,404 foreign workers. Available at: https://www.theborneopost.com/2011/07/27/biometric-programme-registers-390404-foreign-workers/

10.

Bowen

(2009) Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal 9(2): 27–40.

11.

Broeders

Engbersen

(2007) The fight against illegal migration: identification policies and immigrants' counterstrategies. American Behavioral Scientist 50(12): 1592–1609.

12.

Broeders

Hampshire

(2013) Dreaming of seamless borders: ICTs and the pre-emptive governance of mobility in Europe. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 39(8): 1201–1218.

13.

Carling

(2017) Thirty-six migration nexuses, and counting, Available at: https://jorgencarling.org/2017/07/31/thirty-six-migration-nexuses-and-counting/

14.

Ceyhan

(2008) Technologization of security:Management of uncertainty and risk in the age of biometrics. Surveillance and Society 5(2): 102–123.

15.

Daily Express (2014) I-Kad to solve illegals problem, Available at: https://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news.cfm?NewsID=87917

16.

Das

(2018) The Science of Biometrics: Security Technology for Identity Verification. New York: Routledge.

17.

Department of Labour Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of Human Resources (2024) Foreign workers employment. Available at: https://jtksm.mohr.gov.my/en/services/foreign-workers-employment

18.

Dijstelbloem

Meijer

Besters

(2011) The migration machine. In: Huub

Albert

(eds) Migration and the New Technological Borders of Europe. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1–21.

19.

Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department (2015) Eleventh Malaysia plan 2016-2020: anchoring growth on people. Available at: https://www.epu.gov.my/sites/default/files/RMKe-11_Book.pdf

20.

Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department (2021a) Malaysia digital economy blueprint. Available at: https://www.epu.gov.my/sites/default/files/2021-02/malaysia-digital-economy-blueprint.pdf

21.

Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department (2021b) Twelfth Malaysia plan, 2021-2025: a prosperous, inclusive, sustainable Malaysia. Available at: https://rmke12.epu.gov.my/en

22.

Everuss

(2021) AI, smart borders and migration. In: Anthony

(ed) The Routledge Social Science Handbook of AI. London: Routledge, 339–356.

23.

Farbenblum

Berg

Kintominas

(2018) Transformative Technology for Migrant Workers: Opportunities, Challenges, and Risks. New York: Open Society Foundations. Availabel at: https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/uploads/dfe50370-e15a-4a78-99f9-3954c0e73bb3/transformative-technology-for-migrant-workers-20181107.pdf

24.

Foreign Workers Centralized Management System (FWCMS) (2019) Foreign workers centralized management system (FWCMS) aims for global expansion. Available at: https://fwcms.com.my/2019/07/09/foreign-workers-centralized-management-system-fwcms-aims-for-global-expansion/

25.

Foreign Workers Integrated Management System (ePPAx) (2023) Tentang kami: maklumat ringkas mengenai sistem ePPAx. Available at: https://www.eppax.gov.my/eppax/tentang-kami

26.

Free Malaysia Today (2016) Partial amnesty for illegal workers begins on Monday. Available at: https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2016/02/14/partial-amnesty-for-illegal-workers-begins/

27.

FWCMS (2021a) FWCMS in a glance. Available at: https://fwcms.com.my/about/

28.

FWCMS (2021b) About FWCMS. Available at: https://fwcms.com.my/

29.

FWCMS (2024) Bestinet unveils technology to help avoid plight of migrant workers. Available at: https://fwcms.com.my/2024/04/24/bestinet-unveils-technology-to-help-avoid-plight-of-migrant-workers/

30.

FWCMS (2025) FWCMS modules. Available at: https://fwcms.com.my/services/

31.

Gelb

Krishnan

(2018) Technology, Migration and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. London: Overseas Development Institute.

32.

Glouftsios

Scheel

(2020) An inquiry into the digitisation of border and migration management: performativity, contestation and heterogeneous engineering. Third World Quarterly 42(1): 123–140.

33.

Goh

(2015) Facing backlash, MyEG defends deal with Malaysian govt. Digital News Asia, Available at: https://www.digitalnewsasia.com/digital-economy/facing-backlash-myeg-defends-deal-with-malaysian-govt

34.

Hamel

(2009) Information and Communication Technologies and Migration. Human Development Research Paper 2009/39, Available at: https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/19175/

35.

Harindranath

Unwin

(2024) Digital technologies, migration and the sustainable development goals agenda. In: Kavita

Nicola

(eds) The Elgar Companion to Migration and the Sustainable Development Goals. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 151–164.

36.

Immigration Department (2021) Foreign domestic helper. Available at: https://www.imi.gov.my/index.php/en/main-services/foreign-domestic-helper-fdh/

37.

Institute of Labour Market Information Analysis (ILMIA) , Ministry of Human Resources (2023) Report on the Independent Committee on the Management of Foreign Workers . Available at: https://www.moha.gov.my/images/maklumat_bahagian/IM/BPAReport_LATEST_compressed-compressed-compressed.pdf

38.

Jiang

Chen

Blome

, et al. (2023) Digital technology adoption for modern slavery risk mitigation in supply chains: an institutional perspective. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 192: 1–15.

39.

Kannan

(2017) From Jan 1, it will Take Only Eight Days to Hire a Foreign Maid. New Straits Times. Available at: https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2017/12/319544/jan-1-it-will-take-only-eight-days-hire-foreign-maid

40.

Kassim

Mat Zin

(2011) Irregular migrants and the law. Philippine Journal of Development 38(1-2): 85–104.

41.

Kaur

(2014) Managing labour migration in Malaysia: guest worker programs and the regularisation of irregular labour migrants as a policy instrument. Asian Studies Review 38(3): 345–366.

42.

Khazanah Research Institute (2018) The State of Household 2018: Different Realities. Kuala Lumpur: Khazanah Research Institute.

43.

Kikkawa

Justo

Sirivunnabood

(2021) Migtech: how technology is reshaping labor mobility and the landscape of international migration. In: Labor Migration in Asia: Impacts of the Covid-19 Crisis and the Post-pandemic Future. Asian Development Bank Institute, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and International Labour Organization, 60–102.

44.

Kong

(2017) E-Card a tricky option, says mef. Sun Daily, Available at: https://www.thesundaily.my/news/2163193

45.

Krippendorff

(2004) Content Analysis. an Introduction to its Methodology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

46.

Latif

Saari

(2023) Government initiatives to promote adoption of IR4.0Technologies in manufacturing. In: Rajah

Wah

Nurliana

(eds) Digitalization and Development. London: Routledge, 228–242.

47.

Latonero

Wex

Dank

(2015) Technology and Labor Trafficking in a Network Society: General Overview, Emerging Innovations, and Philippines Case Study. Annenberg Center on Communication Leadership and Policy and the University of Southern California.

48.

Laws

Lautenschlager

Baruah

(2017) Progress of the Implementation of Recommendations Adopted at the 3rd – 8th ASEAN Forums on Migrant Labour: Background Paper to the 9th AFML. Bangkok: ILO.

49.

Lee

(2023) Labour policy in Post-Covid-19 Malaysia: crisis responses, structural reform. Japan Labor Issues 7(45): 76–88.

50.

Leese

(2020) Fixing state vision: interoperability, biometrics, and identity management in the EU. Geopolitics 27(1): 113–133.

51.

Leurs

Smets

(2018) Five questions for digital migration studies: learning from digital connectivity and forced migration in (to) Europe. Social media+Society 4(1): 2056305118764425.

52.

Leurs

Witteborn

(2021) Digital migration studies. In: Marie

(ed) Research Handbook on International Migration and Digital Technology. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 15–28.

53.

Lokman

Fong

(2018) No Maids for you if you Have a Record. New Straits Times. Available at: https://www.nst.com.my/news/exclusive/2018/03/340084/no-maids-you-if-you-have-record-for-good-amnesty-programme-for-overstaying-foreigners-DD1126849

54.

Low

(2020) De-commercialization of the labor migration industry in Malaysia. South East Asian Studies 9(1): 27–65.

55.

Low

(2021a) Digitalization of migration management in Malaysia: privatization and the role of immigration service providers. Journal of International Migration and Integration 22(4): 1599–1627.

56.

Low

(2021b) Back for good: reforms in legalization and amnesty programmes in Malaysia. Bijdragen tot de taal-land-en volkenkunde/Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 177(2-3): 344–378.

57.

Low

(2021c) Legal reforms in protecting migrant workers’ welfare in Malaysia: labor law and social security. Advances in Southeast Asian Studies 14(1): 59–80.

58.

Low

Mokhtar

KSH

(2017) Deportation turn in Malaysia: expansion, discourse and practice. Journal of Population and Social Studies 25(2): 147–166.

59.

Madianou

(2019) The biometric assemblage: surveillance, experimentation, profit, and the measuring of refugee bodies. Television & New Media 20(6): 581–599.

60.

Malaysiakini (2008) DG: misuse of I-Kad among reasons foreign workers still detained. Available at: https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/407616

61.

Martin

(2009) Reducing the cost burden for migrant workers: a market-based approach. Global Forum on Migration and Development. https://www.gfmd.org/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1801/files/documents/gfmd_athens09_contr_martin_reducing_the_cost_burden_for_migrant_workers_en.pdf

62.

Melissa (2013) New I-Kad for foreign workers from Nov 15. MalayMail, Available at: https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2013/10/05/new-i-kad-for-foreign-workers-from-nov-15/536965

63.

Ministry of Home Affairs (2013) Ucapan menteri dalam Negeri Sambutan Hari Imigresen 2013, Available at: https://www.moha.gov.my/index.php/en/archieve/324-arkib-koleksi-ucapan/1176-ucapan-menteri-dalam-negeri-sambutan-hari-imigresen-2013

64.

Mohsen

(2017) Employers must submit foreign workers application online from April 1. Sun Daily, Available at: https://www.thesundaily.my/news/2218759

65.

Mustaza

(2015) MyEG defends ‘monopoly’ on foreign worker permit renewal. The Edge Malaysia, Available at: https://theedgemalaysia.com/article/myeg-defends-%E2%80%98monopoly%E2%80%99-foreign-worker-permit-renewal

66.

My Electronic Government (MyEG) (2021) Government services, Available at: https://www.myeg.com.my/services/imi

67.

National Digital Department (2024a) Information on application for foreign workers, Available at: https://www.malaysia.gov.my/portal/content/30442

68.

National Digital Department (2024b) Integrated foreign worker management system (ePPAx), Available at: https://www.malaysia.gov.my/portal/content/31228

69.

Nedelcu

Soysüren

(2022) Precarious migrants, migration regimes and digital technologies: the empowerment-control nexus. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 48(8): 1821–1837.

70.

Parliament of Malaysia (2011) Hansard: House of Representatives, Available at: https://www.parlimen.gov.my/files/hind.ex/pdf/DN-11072011.pdf

71.

Parliament of Malaysia (2012) Hansard: House of Lords, Available at: https://www.parlimen.gov.my/files/hindex/pdf/DN-02052012.pdf

72.

Parliament of Malaysia (2013a) Hansard. House of Commons, Available at: https://www.parlimen.gov.my/files/hindex/pdf/DN-31072013.pdf

73.

Parliament of Malaysia (2013b) Hansard: House of Representatives, Available at: https://www.parlimen.gov.my/files/hindex/pdf/DR-02122013.pdf

74.

Parliament of Malaysia (2014) Hansard: House of Representatives , Available at: https://www.parlimen.gov.my/files/hindex/pdf/DR-07042014.pdf

75.

Parliament of Malaysia (2018) Hansard: House of Representatives, Available at: https://www.parlimen.gov.my/files/hindex/pdf/DR-22112018.pdf

76.

Pelizza

(2020) Processing alterity, enacting Europe: migrant registration and identification as co-construction of individuals and polities. Science, Technology & Human Values 45(2): 262–288.

77.

Pineda

CNP

Cayabyab

LAS

(2023) Facilitating employment opportunities in the digital space: a study on the activities and services of digital labor market intermediaries in the Philippines, ILS Working Papers 2023.

78.

Ponzanesi

(2019) Migration and mobility in a digital age: (Re) mapping connectivity and belonging. Television and New Medi 20(6): 547–557.

79.

Pötzsch

(2015) The emergence of iBorder: bordering bodies, networks, and machines. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 33(1): 101–118.

80.

Preiss

(2022) Digital migration infrastructures. In: Peter

(ed) Introduction to Migration Studies: An Interactive Guide to the Literature on Migration and Diversity. Rotterdam: Springer, 99–110.

81.

Prianto

Amri

Ajis

MNE

(2023) Governance and protection of Indonesian migrant workers in Malaysia: a study on policy and innovation network. Journal of Southeast Asian Human Rights 7(2): 214–249.

82.

Saunders

(2025) Security, digital border technologies, and immigration admissions: challenges of and to non-discrimination, liberty and equality. European Journal of Political Theory 24(2): 155–175.

83.

Shaari

(2019) Fair recruitment: foreign workers centralized management system, Available at: https://fwcms.com.my/2019/12/30/fair-recruitment/

84.

Shaari

(2020) Breaking Down the barriers: employers dilemma in hiring and managing migrant workers. Foreign Workers Centralized Management System, Available at: https://fwcms.com.my/2020/02/18/breaking-down-the-barriers-employers-dilemma-in-hiring-and-managing-migrant-workers/

85.

Shahar

(2017) Two Online Systems Introduced to Ease Foreign Workers Recruitment. New Straits Times. Available at: https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2017/04/229245/two-online-systems-introduced-ease-foreign-workers-recruitment

86.

Sistem Maid Online (SMO) (2018) Syarat utama. Available at: https://maid-online.imi.gov.my/maid/main?syarat

87.

Smith

Miller

(2021) Biometric Identification, Law and Ethics. Cham: Springer.

88.

Stenum

(2017) The body-border. Governing irregular migration through biometric technology. Spheres: Journal of Digital Culture 4: 1–16.

89.

Sun

(2014a) i-KAD for foreign workers, Available at: https://www.thesundaily.my/archive/925972-DRARCH237111

90.

Sun

(2014b) Illegal immigrants detained during the ops bersepadu 6P in teluk rubiah here today. Available at: https://www.thesundaily.my/archive/935825-JRARCH238415

91.

Sun

(2015) MyEG explains foreign worker permit renewals. Available at: https://www.thesundaily.my/archive/1292397-GRARCH290463

92.

Sun

(2022) Precarious migrants in a sharing economy: the rise of platformed governance in China: migration, technology, and integration. International Journal of Communication 16: 5480–5498.

93.

Sun Daily (2017a) Surrender or Face Fine and Jail. Foreign Workers Told. Available at: https://thesun.my/archive/surrender-or-face-fine-and-jail-foreign-workers-told-CTARCH458876

94.

Sun Daily (2017b) Employers can apply for foreign maid permits online beginning Jan 1, November 1. Available at: https://www.thesundaily.my/archive/employers-can-apply-foreign-maid-permits-online-beginning-jan-1-LTARCH498693

95.

Tagliacozzo

Pisacane

Kilkey

(2023) A system-thinking approach for migration studies: an introduction. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 50(5): 1099–1117.

96.

Tazzioli

(2019) The Making of Migration: The Biopolitics of Mobility at Europe’s Borders. London: Sage.

97.

The Star (2008a) Immigration department introduces mobile computers, 20 February. Available at: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2008/02/20/immigration-department-introduces-mobile-computers

98.

The Star (2008b) ASEAN governments keen on KL’s method of tracking illegals, Available at: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2008/11/04/asean-governments-keen-on-kls-method-of-tracking-illegals/

99.

The Star (2018) Bestinet: we stop human trafficking, Available at: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/06/25/bestinet-we-stop-human-trafficking-our-system-is-specifically-designed-for-the-purpose-and-it-is-eff/

100.

Thinyane

Gallo

Junio

(2021) Use of Digital Technology in the Recruitment of Migrant Workers. Geneva: International Labour Organization. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40ed_norm/%40ipec/documents/publication/wcms_831814.pdf

101.

U.S Department of State (2022) 2022 trafficking in persons report. Available at: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221020-2022-TIP-Report.pdf

102.

U.S. Department of State (2023) 2023 trafficking in persons report: malaysia. Available at: https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-trafficking-in-persons-report/malaysia/

103.

Vezzoli

Bonfiglio

De Haas

(2017) Global Migration Futures: Exploring the Future of International Migration with a Scenario Methodology. International Migration Institute. Oxford Department of International Development, University of Oxford.

104.

Weber

(1990) Basic Content Analysis. 2nd edition. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

105.

Wickramasekara

(2015) Review of the government-to-government Mechanism for the Employment of Bangladeshi Workers in the Malaysian Plantation Sector. International Labour Organization.

106.

Witteborn

(2022) Digitalization, digitization and datafication: the three D transformation of forced migration management. Communication, Culture and Critique 15(2): 157–175.

107.

World Bank (2013) Immigration in Malaysia: assessment of its economic effects and a review of the policy and system.

108.

World Bank (2015) Malaysia Economic Monitor: Immigrant Labour. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.

109.

Simler

Loh

, et al. (2020) Who is Keeping Score? Estimating the Number of Foreign Workers in Malaysia. Washington, DC: World Bank.

110.

Yusof

(2024) FMM calls for a single online system for foreign workers. Star, Available at: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2024/08/13/fmm-calls-for-a-single-online-system-for-foreign-workers

Digital technologies and migration management in Malaysia: The technology-migration nexus

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References