Sociology and the Sociology Program at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, are described. Grounded in the academy's mission of educating and inspiring future leaders of character, this article focuses on the history of the Sociology Program, alignment with American Sociological Association standards, sociodemographics of cadet sociology majors, recent graduates, the curriculum, extracurricular activities, and the sociology faculty and their productivity. The Sociology Program has made significant progress in multiple areas while concomitantly being handicapped in other areas. The conclusion addresses the significance of social science in military officer education.
Sociologists have been long interested in the military. See H.D. Lasswell, "The Garrison State," American Journal of Sociology46 (1941): 455-68; P.A. Sorokin, Social and Cultural Dynamics (American Books, 1937); H. Spencer, The Principles of Sociology, II (New York: Appleton & Company, 1883); M. Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, translated by A. M. Henderson and T. Parsons (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1947). For reviews of the field of military sociology, see B. Boëne , "Social Science Research, War and the Military in the United States: An Outsider's View of the Field's Dominant National Tradition," in Military Sociology: The Richness of a Discipline , ed. G. Kümmel and A. D. Prüfert, (Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft , 2000), 149-254; G. Caforio, "Some Historical Notes," in Handbook for the Sociology of the Military, ed. G. Caforia (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2003 ), 7-26; D.R. Segal, "Current Developments and Trends in Social Research on the Military ," in Social Sciences and the Military: An Interdisciplinary Overview, ed. G. Cafario ( New York: Routledge, 2007), 46-66; G. Siebold, "Core Issues and Theory in Military Sociology," Journal of Political and Military Sociology29 (2001): 140-59. Some of the first significant studies in military sociology included S.A. Stouffer, E.A. Lumsdaine, M.H. Lumsdaine, R.M. Williams Jr., M.B. Smith, S.A. Star, and L.S. Cottrell Jr., The American Soldier: Combat and Its Aftermath, vol. II (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1949); G.C. Homans, "The Small Warship ," American Sociological Review11, 3 (1946): 294-300; E.A. Shils and M. Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly12, 2 (1948): 280-315; and a July 1946 special issue of the American Journal of Sociology dedicated to "Human Behavior in Military Society." Later classics include S.P. Huntington , The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1957); C.W. Mills, The Power Elite (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1956); and M. Janowitz, The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait ( Chicago: Free Press, 1960).
2.
See M.G. Ender and A. Gibson, "Invisible Institution: The Military, War, and Peace in 1990s Introductory Sociology Textbooks." Journal of Political and Military Sociology33, 2 (2005): 249-66.
3.
USMA and West Point are used interchangeably in this article.
4.
Two previous self-studies of sociology at West Point are M.G. Ender and T.A. Kolditz, "Evolution of Sociology at West Point, 1963-2001," in West Point: Two Centuries and Beyond, ed. L. Betros et al. (Abiline, TX: McWhiney Foundation Press, 2004), 455-77; M.W. Segal, D.R. Segal, and J.M. Wattendorf, "The Sociology Program in a Professional School Setting: The United States Military Academy ," Teaching Sociology18 (1990): 156-63.
5.
Office of the Dean, Educating Army Leaders for the 21st Century (West Point, NY: Office of the Dean, United States Military Academy, 1998 ); Office of the Dean, Educating Future Army Officers for a Changing World: Operational Concept for the Academic Program of the United States Military Academy ( West Point, NY: Office of the Dean, U.S. Military Academy , 2002).
6.
J. Henslin, Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach, 7th ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon , 2005), 5.
7.
See Ender and Kolditz, "Evolution of Sociology," 455-77. See also Segal et al., "The Sociology Program," 156-63.
8.
See the American Sociological Association, "Trend Data on the Profession," http://www.asanet.org/page.ww?section=Profession+Trend+Data&name=Sociology+Degrees+Since+1966 (accessed September 15, 2007). See also the American Sociological Association, "After the Fall: Growth Trends Continue," http://www.asanet.org/research/bagrowth2/figure1.html (accessed March 2003); and the American Sociological Association, "Frequently Asked Questions," http://www.asanet.org/research/faqintro.html (accessed March 1, 2003).
9.
In 1997, the Department Head of the Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership, COL James Hallums, was removed from his position by the Superintendent. He soon after retired. See T.E. Ricks, "Army at Odds: West Point Posting Becomes a Minefield for `Warrior' Officer," Wall Street Journal , March 13, 1997: 1.
10.
Information is available online at http://www.dean.usma.edu/bsl/default.htm (accessed October 8, 2007).
11.
American Sociological Association, "Frequently Asked Questions."
12.
Ibid. See also the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) Completions, 1996-2004 ( Washington, DC: NCES, 2006), http://caspar.nsf.gov (accessed November 6, 2006).
13.
C.C. Moskos and J.S. Butler, All that We can Be: Black Leadership and Racial Integration the Army Way (New York: Basic Books, 1996).
14.
For a discussion of values in sociology, see D.A. Snow, "1998 PSA Presidential Address: The Value of Sociology," Sociological Perspectives42, 1 ( 1999): 1-22.
15.
See P.A. Adler and P. Adler, Backboards & Blackboards: College Athletes and Role Engulfment (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991). See also D. Lederman, "Major Issue: Athletes' Studies," USA Today.com, November 19, 2003, http://www.usatoday.com/sports/college/2003-11-18-athletes-majors_x.htm (accessed September 15, 2007); B. Wolverton, "Athletics Participation Prevents Many Players from Choosing Majors They Want," Chronicle of Higher Education (January 19, 2007), http://chronicle.com/daily/2007/01/2007010801n.htm (accessed September 15, 2007); S. Lipka, "Auburn U. Announces New Academic-Quality Policy Inquiry after Courses Taken by Some Athletes," The Chronicle of Higher Education (August 11, 2006), http://chronicle.com/daily/2006/08/2006081105n.htm (accessed September 15, 2007); W. Suggs, "Jock Majors: Many Colleges Allow Football Players to Take the Easy Way Out." Chronicle of Higher Education (January 17, 2003), http://chronicle.com/free/v49/i19/19a03301.htm#study (accessed September 15, 2007).
16.
See M.G. Ender , "PL372: Marriage, Civilian Families and the Military Family," in Teaching about Families, ed. M. J. Laughlin et al. (Washington, DC : American Sociological Association Teaching Resource Center, 2004); M.G. Ender, "PL377: Social Inequality: Race, Gender & Ethnicity," in Race, Gender, and Class in Sociology: Toward an Inclusive Curriculum, 5th ed., ed. B. Scott, J. Misra, and M. Segal (Washington, DC: American Sociological Association Teaching Resources, 2003a), 99-114.; M.G. Ender, "PL470: Cinematic Images of War and the Military," in Teaching the Sociology of Peace, War, and Social Conflict, ed. J. MacDougall and M. G. Ender (Washington, DC: American Sociological Association Teaching Resources Center, 2003b), 104-117.; M.G. Ender, "PL371: Introductory Sociology Course Guide," in Introductory Sociology Resource Manual, 5th ed., ed. J. Sikora and T. O. Amoloza (Washington, DC: American Sociological Association Teaching Resource Center, 2000), 55-66, 156-61; and R. Kelty, "Armed Forces & Society," in Teaching the Sociology of Peace, War, and Military Institutions: A Curriculum Guide, ed. M.G. Ender et al. (Washington DC: American Sociological Association Teaching Resources Center, 2007), 142-153.
17.
Class rank is determined from a combined score of academic, military, and physical grade scores.
18.
Of each West Point graduating class, 80 percent branch Combat Arms and the remaining 20 percent Combat Support and Combat Service Support.
19.
The Academic Program Goals for the USMA include moral awareness, continued education, creativity, communication, cultural perspective, historical perspective, understanding human behavior, math science technology, and the engineering thought process. See Office of the Dean, Feedback from the Field Army: Officer Performance of USMA Graduates from the Class of 1996 (West Point, NY: Office of the Dean, U.S. Military Academy, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003).
20.
Ibid.
21.
All cadets at West Point are required to complete a course in probability and statistics during their sophomore year.
22.
We also provide a Sociology Honors Program within the sociology major. Cadets maintaining a 3.5 overall cumulative grade point average can elect to complete the requirements to receive the designation of Honors on their diploma and transcripts. They have the same course requirements as majors but must complete an additional two semesters of advanced study in the "Advanced Behavioral Sciences I and II" courses resulting in an independent and original research thesis with a designated advisor on a sociological topic of their choosing.
23.
See Office of the Dean, Educating Army Leaders for the 21st Century.
24.
See K. McKinney, C.B. Howery, K.J. Strand, E.L. Kain, and C. WhiteBerheide, Liberal Learning and the Sociology Major Updated: Meeting the Challenge of Teaching Sociology in the Twenty-First Century ( Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 2004).
25.
Nonsociology majors have not elected to take "Sociological Theory or Research Methods" as an elective course.
26.
See Swarthmore College, Department of Sociology and Anthropology courses , http://www.swarthmore.edu/x8737.xml (accessed October 4, 2007); Williams College, Department of Sociology and Anthropology courses, http://www.williams.edu/AnthSoc/courses0708.pdf (accessed October 4, 2007); Amherst College, Department of Anthropology and Sociology courses, https://cms.amherst.edu/academiclife/departments/anthropology_sociology (accessed October 4, 2007). These schools were chosen as the top three liberal arts colleges in the United States as ranked by the annual U.S. News and World Report survey. This is an annual ranking of the top ten 100 liberal arts (bachelor) colleges in the United States, http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1libartco_brief.php (accessed October 4, 2007). Notably, the United States Military Academy was ranked twenty-second in 2007-the first time military academies were included in the annual ranking with civilian institutions.
27.
A single class size at West Point is capped at eighteen cadets, after which another section is opened.
28.
American Sociological Association, American Sociological Association Web site (2007), http://www.asanet.org/ (accessed January 24, 2007 ). The ASA provides an array of curriculum guides and teaching resources.
29.
See U.S. News and World Report, "America's Best Colleges 2007," 2007. We use the top ten.
30.
See McKinney et al., Liberal Learning, 5-7.
31.
See R. Hajjar and M.G. Ender, Sociological Theory through Film , paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the North Central Sociological Association, Pittsburgh, PA (April 7-10, 2005).
32.
See Ender, "PL371," "PL377," "PL470," and "PL372."
33.
See M.G. Ender , L. Woehrle, and R. Kelty, Peace, War, and Military Institutions: A Curriculum Guide (Washington, DC: American Sociological Association Teaching Resource Center, 2007); M.G. Ender, "PL470."
34.
See Ender and Gibson, "Invisible Institution ," as an example of a collaborative work.
35.
An example is 2LT Rachel Beck. She received the 2005 Elise M. Boulding Student Undergraduate Paper Award sponsored by the Peace, War, and Social Conflict Section of the American Sociological Association. The title of her paper is Sex, Neighborhood, Religion: Predicting Attitudes towards Democracy in Post-Saddam Iraq.
36.
Segal et al., "The Sociology Program," 159.
37.
Ender and Kolditz, "Evolution of Sociology."
38.
See "SEC. 523. Composition of Faculties at the United States Military Academy and Air Force Academy" in the H.R.5006 National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993, Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c102:H.R.5006.ENR (accessed October 8, 2007).
39.
See the West Point Web site, Years of Continuity and Progress, 1980-2002, http://www.usma.edu/Bicentennial/history/1980.asp (accessed September 28, 2007).
40.
See Admiral (ret.) C.R. Larson, Study and Report Related to Permanent Professors at the United States Air Force Academy, Report for the Secretary of the Air Force (April 2004): A-1, http://www.usafa.af.mil/superintendent/pa/larson_report.pdf (accessed September 27, 2007).
41.
Ibid., ES-1.
42.
Ibid., ES-1. Other examples of reports highlighting differences in the needs of civilian professors include the Faculty Development Subcommittee 2001, Results of Civilian Faculty Surveys, AY00-01, Internal USMA report; and C. Conley and J. Rogers, Memorandum for Record on Civilian Faculty Housing, USMA Memorandum (June 1, 2006).
43.
Personal communication with John M. Wattendorf, September 28, 2007. In selecting a PhD program, B. G. Wattendorf wanted to focus his study on leadership broadly defined. He chose sociology because he had at one time a sponsor who was a professor of both business and sociology, which enabled him to achieve his objectives. Subsequently, when Wattendorf became the Department Head, one of his goals was to ensure that the department maintained a "healthy balance" of academic backgrounds among its faculty. With regard to sociology, he wanted "a strong military sociology presence." To achieve this goal, he developed relationships with the field of leading military sociologists at Maryland, Chicago, Northwestern, and Texas A&M. Additionally, he influenced others to attend his Stanford alma mater, as it had strong organizational and social psychology programs, two of the main perspectives of military sociology.
44.
For example, LTC Brian Reed completed a PhD at the University of Maryland that focused on counterinsurgency operations in Iraq using social network analysis. See B.J. Reed and D.R. Segal, "Social Network Analysis and Counterinsurgency Operations: The Capture of Saddam Hussein," Sociological Focus39, 4 ( 2006): 251-64.
45.
For example, Major Remi Hajjar completed an ethnographic thesis on the role of military education in public high schools. See R.M. Hajjar, "The Public Military High School: A Powerful Educational Possibility," Armed Forces & Society32, 1 (2005): 44-62.
46.
See W.J. Lennox , USMA Faculty Manual: A Blend of Excellence (West Point, NY: U.S. Military Academy, 2005).
47.
These areas are not atypical compared to civilian universities, as junior faculty and student development are subsumed under service, teaching, or research.
48.
See B. Keith and M.G. Ender, "The Sociological Core: Conceptual Patterns and Idiosyncrasies in the Structure and Content of Introductory Sociology Textbooks, 1940-1990," Teaching Sociology32, 1 (2004): 19-36.
49.
See Ender et al., Teaching the Sociology of Peace, War, and Military Institutions .
50.
For a compelling argument on behalf of the utility of sociology in educating future army officers, see S. Efflandt and B. Reed, "Developing the Warrior-Scholar," Military Review (July-August 2001): 82-89.
51.
See B. Booth , M.W. Segal, D.B. Bell, J.A. Martin, M.G. Ender, D.E. Rohall, and J. Nelson, What We Know about Army Families: 2007 Update (Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Family and Morale, Welfare and Recreation Command, 2007 ).
52.
See R. Hajjar and M.G. Ender, "Harnessing the Power of Culture and Diversity for Organizational Performance," in Leadership Lessons from West Point, ed. D. Crandall ( San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006 ), 313-37.
53.
See LT COL P. Yingling, "A Failure of Generalship," Armed Forces Journal (May 2007), http://www.armedforcesjournal.com/2007/05/2635198 (accessed October 8, 2007).
54.
See P.W. Chiarelli and P.R. Michaelis, "Winning the Peace: The Requirement for Full-Spectrum Operations," Military Review (July-August 2005): 4-17; P.W. Chiarelli and S.M. Smith, "Learning from our Modern Wars: The Imperatives of Preparing for a Dangerous Future," Military Review (September- October, 2007): 2-15.
55.
D. Rohde, "Army Enlists Anthropology in War Zones," New York Times (October 5, 2007).
56.
Efflandt and Reed, "Developing the Warrior-Scholar ."
