This article reviews the status of military sociology in South Africa by examining where it is being taught and researched within sociology as a discipline and at the South African Military Academy (hereafter, Academy). The conclusion is reached that it has not been a prominent area of academic focus possibly because of the fact that at present only one civilian university's sociology department presents a related course. Looking at the historic development of the academic offerings at the Academy, at no time has military sociology been presented as a course, although it is masked within some of the other social science disciplines. Only recently has the relevance of military sociology as a discipline in its own right been acknowledged, and it appears as if it may well find a place in the education of young officers at the Academy in the near future.
See, for example, the collection of essays in Jacklyn Cock and Laurie Nathan, eds., War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa ( Cape Town, South Africa: David Phillip, 1989); A. Senekal , "Die Aard, Totstandkoming en Ontwikkeling van Militêre Sosiologie met Verwysing na Enkele Navorsingsoorwegings,"Militaria12, 4 (1982): 35.
2.
A. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa (London : I.B. Tauris, 1996), 141. Also see A. Esterhuyse , "Educating for Professionalism: A New Military for a New South Africa,"Scientia Militaria34, 2 (2006): 26-27, 37-38.
3.
See the research reports of the University of Stellenbosch University, Faculty of Military Science. The shift in focus on research came about only in the nineties.
4.
J. Cilliers and L. Heinecken, "South Africa: Emerging from a Time Warp," in The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, ed. C. C. Moskos , J. A. Williams, and D. R. Segal (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 248-50.
5.
Many sociologists who chose to oppose Apartheid policies and who, for example, propagated pacifist ideals were subjected to intimidation and arrest during the various states of emergencies.
6.
A. Senekal, "Die Aard," 35. University of the Witwatersrand, Department of Sociology, Sociology of War and Peace, Module SOCL 3012 (Johannesburg , South Africa: University of the Witwatersrand, 2007).
7.
At the time, Lindy Heinecken served as secretary of the South African Sociological Association and was employed at the Centre for Military Studies. Many delegates were a bit dubious about attending a sociology conference on a "military base."
8.
See J. Cock , "Keeping the Fires Burning: Militarisation and the Politics of Gender in South Africa,"South African Sociological Review1, 1 (1988): 1-22; J. Cock, "Conscripion in South Africa: A Study in the Politics of Coercion,"South African Sociological Review2, 1 ( 1988): 1-22.
9.
R. Ferreira , "Die Invloed van Grensdiens op the Rolvervulling in die Suid-Afrikaanse Gesin," South African Journal of Sociology19, 4 ( 1988): 139-48.
10.
L. Heinecken , "Is Selfless Service Becoming a Misplaced Service Ethic? Attitudes of Officers Serving in the South African National Defence Force,"Society in Transition1, 1-4 ( 1997): 43-53; L. Heinecken, "HIV/Aids, the Military and the Impact on National and International Security,"Society in Transition32, 1 (2001): 120-47; D. [G. E.] Visser, "Image and Identity in Military Education,"Society in Transition32, 1 (2002): 173-86.
11.
Although there are many political scientists who are active in the field of civil-military relations, few have focused on issues of, for example, military organization, military professionalism, cultural diversity, gender issues, and military family life.
12.
A. Senekal, "Die Aard,"27-39.
13.
Ibid.
14.
A. Senekal, Course Outline: Military Sociology Honours Module (Johannesburg , South Africa: Rand Afrikaans University, Department of Sociology, 1989).
15.
Readings for the course included H.D. Lasswell, "The Garrison State,"American Journal of Sociology46 (1942): 455-68; H.D. Lasswell, "The Garrison State Hypothesis Today," in Changing Patterns of Military Politics, ed. S. P. Huntington (New York: Free Press, 1969); and A. Perlmutter, "The Praetorian State and the Praetorian Army,"Comparative Politics1, 3 (1969): 382-404.
16.
University of the Witwatersrand, Department of Sociology, Sociology of War.
17.
This course was formerly presented by Professor Jacklyn Cock, a known pacifist feminist. The footer on each page of the course outline includes a quote by President Dwight D. Eisenhower from April 16, 1953: "Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired, signifies in the final sense a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed."
18.
Summarized from G.E. Visser, "Die Geskiedenis van die Suid-Afrikaanse Militêre Akademie, 1950-1990" [The history of the South African Military Academy, 1950-1990] (doctoral dissertation, published as Supplementa ad Scientia Militaria I, 2000).
19.
This has reinforced the historic lack of intellectualism within the South African armed forces, although with the recent restructuring of officer education, this is set to change as greater value and appreciation are given to the need for tertiary education.
20.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "The South African Military Academy's Educational Offerings and the National Threat Perception,"Scientia Militaria32, 2 (2004): 71.
21.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "British Influence on Military Training and Education in South Africa: The Case of the South African Military Academy and Its Predecessors,"South African Historical Journal46 (May 2002): 74, 77-79.
22.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "Marrying Sparta and Athens: The South African Military Academy and Task-Orientated Junior Officer Development in Peace and War,"Journal for Contemporary History27, 3 (December 2002 ): 187-88.
23.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "South African Military,"71.
24.
Military Academy Archives, "Verslag van Komitee van Ondersoek insake Werwing, Keuring, Aanstelling en Opleiding van Staandemagoffisiere" [Report of Committee of Inquiry on the recruiting, selection, appointment and training of permanent force officers] (hereafter, Hartzenberg Report), February 13, 1968, 7-10, 116-18; South African National Defence Force Archives, MVB 164, "Verslag oor die Militêre Akademie Deel I" [Report on the Military Academy part I] (hereafter, Malan Report), February 28, 1969, 8-11, 29.
25.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "Marrying Sparta,"192.
26.
Hartzenberg Report, 42-43.
27.
Ibid., 42-43, 125-26, appendix A.
28.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "South African Military,"80.
29.
Military Academy Archives, "Verslag deur Komitee van Ondersoek na die Doeltreffendheid van die Militêre Akademie te Saldanha" [Report by Committee of Inquiry on the effectiveness of the Military Academy at Saldanha], June 21, 1976, 9.
30.
Military Academy Archives, "Verslag van Projek WIMPOLE oor die Militêre Akademie" [Report of Project WIMPOLE on the Military Academy], October 13, 1989, 21, E1-E19.
31.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "South African Military,"80-81.
32.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "British Influence,"81.
33.
G.E. Visser, Die Geskiedenis, 441.
34.
Ibid., 442.
35.
Ibid., 441.
36.
See University of Stellenbosch, Faculty of Military Science, Yearbook 1985-1990 (Stellenbosch, South Africa: University of Stellenbosch, Faculty of Military Science, 1985-1990).
37.
R. Kasrils, "Opening Address" (conference, Military Academy , Saldanha, June 1995).
38.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "Marrying Sparta,"196.
39.
P.C. Potgieter , "Boodskap deur die Bevelvoerder Militêre Akademie,"Military Academy Annual (1998): 2; P.C. Potgieter, "Boodskap deur die Bevelvoerder Militêre Akademie,"Military Academy Annual (1999): 2-3; Military Academy, Military Academy Annual History Report 2000 (Saldanha, South Africa: Military Academy, Faculty of Military Science, 2000).
40.
University of Stellenbosch, Calendar2003Part 13: Faculty of Military Science ( Stellenbosch, South Africa: University of Stellenbosch ), 6-11, 31-38.
41.
See Stellenbosch University, Research Outputs for the Faculty of Military Science 1990-1992. http://www.sun.ac.za/Research/NavVFaktfry.htm .
42.
D. [G. E.] Visser, "South African Military,"91.
43.
See, for example, D. [G. E.] Visser, "South African Military" ; T. Neethling , "The Relevance of Political Sciences at the South African Military Academy: Context, Comparative Perspectives and Reflections,"Strategic Review for Southern Africa28, 1 (2006): 124-50; A. Esterhuyse, "Educating for Professionalism,"21-43; and A.J. Esterhuyse, "Professional Military Education in the South African National Defence Force: The Role of the Military Academy" (doctoral dissertation, Stellenboch University, 2007).
44.
Examples include the survey on equal opportunties and affirmative action by the Division Effect Analysis and the research conducted by the Military Psychological Institute.
45.
For typical examples of research publications in the field, see G. Caforio, ed., The Sociology of the Military (Cheltnham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1998); and the recent book also by G. Caforio , ed., The Handbook of the Sociology of the Military (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2002 ).
46.
For an overview of some of the challenges facing the South African armed forces, see L. Heinecken, "South Africa's Postmodern Miltiary: Adapting to the New Political and Strategic Environment" (paper, First Cranfield University International Conference on Defence Management, Cranfield University, Shrivenham, United Kingdom, April 24-25, 2003).
