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Abstract

Hybrid yarns are engineered by combining different materials into a single structure to meet the specific performance requirements of the final product. This study examines the influence of hybrid yarn structures on mechanical, comfort, and drying properties of polyester–viscose knitted fabrics, aiming to enhance viscose-containing fabrics’ pilling and drying performance while improving the handle and comfort of polyester-containing fabrics. Hybrid yarns were produced using core-spun and siro-spun spinning techniques and compared with conventional ring-spun yarns made of 100% polyester and 100% viscose fibers. Some 1 × 1 rib fabrics were knitted and evaluated for mechanical properties, such as bursting strength, elongation, and comfort properties, including moisture management, air permeability, water vapor permeability, and drying time. The results revealed that hybrid yarns improved fabric strength and shortened drying time compared with 100% viscose fabrics. Core-spun yarns with viscose on the outer layer and polyester in the core exhibited better durability and faster drying, combining the benefits of both fibers. These results highlight the potential of hybrid yarns to optimize performance and comfort in textiles, offering tailored solutions for diverse applications.

Keywords

Hybrid yarns siro-spun core-spun permeability moisture management mechanical fabric properties

Hybrid yarns combine different materials to meet specific performance needs, incorporating high-strength, conductive, elastomeric, natural, or synthetic fibers.^1,2 They contribute to the advancement of protective clothing, sportswear, fashion, and composite materials used in aerospace, automotive, and construction industries by imparting enhanced durability and structural reinforcement. Medical applications include sutures and compression garments, while industrial uses cover filtration and conductive fabrics. Smart textiles enable wearable tech and energy harvesting, while home textiles benefit from improved durability and functionality, making hybrid yarns highly versatile. Conductive hybrid yarns are widely used in smart e-textiles for healthcare, sports, military, and wearable electronics, enhancing durability, conductivity, and heating efficiency.^3–19 Conductive hybrid cover yarns featuring continuous metallic filaments are favored for e-textiles due to their ease of production, superior electrical conductivity, and durability. However, challenges arise in controlling the amount of conducting material, as larger metallic filaments can reduce electromagnetic shielding effectiveness due to increased stiffness, leading to poor fabric interlacement.⁸ Raji et al. provide a comprehensive review of electrical conductivity in textile fibers and yarns, classifying various conductive yarn types by their manufacturing methods, composition, and applications.⁹ The categories include whole metallic yarns, composite conductive yarns, plated yarns, conductive polymer yarns, and those made from new nanomaterials and nanocomposites.

Beyond conductive textiles, hybrid yarns play a key role in thermoplastic composites, with research focusing on manufacturing techniques and material performance.^2,20,21 Natural-fiber-based hybrids offer sustainability benefits, while composites such as polyamide–glass, polypropylene–glass, recycled carbon fibers, polyester, polyamide and PLA/hemp have been studied extensively.^22–24

Hybrid yarns can be produced by various methods such as wrap spinning, core-spun yarn spinning, ply twisting, air-jet texturing, and entangling methods. The core-spun yarn production technique is one of the most commonly used methods for manufacturing hybrid yarns. The core part provides the yarn with high strength, dimensional stability, and other mechanical and functional properties, whereas the sheath contributes aesthetic qualities such as appearance, handle, and comfort. This technique allows for cost-effective material optimization, lightweight structures, and customizable conductivity, elasticity, or thermal resistance features. Its adaptability makes it ideal for applications in protective clothing, technical textiles, innovative fabrics, and industrial reinforcements, efficiently meeting diverse functional and aesthetic requirements. In addition to technical applications, hybrid yarns are widely used in the apparel industry, with the denim sector being one of their most prevalent application areas. The performance of denim fabrics can be improved by hybrid yarns, generally combining cotton fibers with different filaments.^25–34 Recent research on hybrid yarns and their production methods highlights several key studies. This work involves producing technical fabrics with improved mechanical properties using the hollow spindle parallel-wrapped yarn spinning method.^35–38 In addition, studies have been conducted on blended hybrid ring yarns made from mulberry silk and Eri silk fibers³⁹ as well as on double-ply hybrid yarns produced using ring and compact spinning.⁴⁰ Production methods for hybrid yarns aimed at creating thermoplastic biocomposites,⁴¹ and the development of core-spun hybrid yarn sensors for smart textile applications were investigated.⁴²

Core-spun hybrid yarn structures can be spun using ring, siro, rotor, air-jet and friction spinning systems and previous studies were focused on yarn characteristics produced by different methods. Regarding rotor spun yarns, filament yarns and staple fibers are combined, and it is found that decreased over-feed enhances yarn strength, while increased over-feed creates surface loops. Hybrid yarns exhibit improved strength, reduced imperfections, lower hairiness, and minimal thickness variation.^43,44 Since ring spinning is one of the oldest and most widely used yarn production methods, research on core-spun hybrid yarns has been largely focused on this technique. Compared with conventional ring-spun yarns, ring-core-spun yarns exhibited enhanced strength and elongation, though excessive twist caused instability and reduced elongation and the core/sheath ratio, twisting value, and core material affect yarn characteristics.^45,46 Ring-spun hybrid yarns face sheath fiber slippage issues, affecting core coverage. Siro-core-spun yarns that can be used as a solution for these problems showed better quality, with filament tension, feeding direction, and twist alignment affecting performance. Filament feeding position was effective on the results.⁴⁷ The core visibility, color and whiteness characteristics of fabrics knitted from the ring, siro, and compact core-spun yarns incorporating metal wire were examined. The siro core-spun method showed the best performance and increasing the metal content in yarns reduced the fabrics’ whiteness and color intensity.^48,49 The physical properties of core-spun yarns produced on ring and air-jet spinning were analyzed and ring-core-spun yarns’ strength, elongation, and breaking energy values were found higher.⁵⁰

The mechanical and performance properties of yarns are influenced not only by production methods but also by fiber characteristics. In recent years, regenerated cellulose fibers have become a prominent part of fiber research as they are an important alternative to cotton and synthetic fibers because they are biodegradable from natural sources. The hygroscopicity, silky handle, breathability, and drape of fabrics produced from regenerated cellulose fibers and their blends make these fabrics especially preferred in the clothing sector. The most commonly used fiber among regenerated cellulose fibers is viscose fiber. However, fabrics produced from viscose fiber also have negative aspects, such as poor crease resistance, low wet and dry strength, and extended drying times.⁵¹

In addition to regenerated cellulose fibers, extensive research has been conducted on polyester fibers and their blends due to their cost-effectiveness, and various performance advantages. However, most studies have focused on conventional fiber-blend yarns. In previous research the handle and comfort properties of polyester/viscose blended woven fabrics were examined, and fabrics with a higher viscose content exhibited better tactile, increased air permeability, and enhanced moisture vapor transfer, although reduced thermal insulation.⁵² The hydrophilicity, moisture transfer and permeability characteristics of polyester–viscose blended woven fabrics were investigated and blend ratio, yarn count, and twist levels significantly influenced moisture transmission properties.^53,54 Similarly, the mechanical and comfort properties of knitted fabrics produced from bamboo viscose–polyester and cotton–polyester blends at different blend ratios were investigated.⁵⁵ The effects of various surface modification techniques (flocking, layer-by-layer deposition, screen printing, and thermal-transfer printing) on the structural, biophysical, sensory, and mechanical properties of cotton and polyester fabrics were assessed.⁵⁶ In another study, a double-faced polyester–viscose woven fabrics were used as porous substrates for direct coating and multilayer applications to investigate their potential for biosensor integration, highlighting their functional versatility.⁵⁷

This study aims to investigate the effects of combining polyester and viscose fibers with different techniques, instead of blending in a blowroom line or plying. Differing from conventional core-spun production approaches, where filament yarns are predominantly utilized as the core, this study presents a novel hybrid yarn structure, in which a ring-spun yarn was integrated as the core, encased by a staple fiber sheath layer. This design was hypothesized to enhance drying efficiency and absorbency characteristics. The selection of siro-spun and core-spun yarns in this study was based on their widespread applicability and practicality in the textile industry, particularly for apparel production. Given the global predominance of ring spinning systems, both siro and core-spun spinning represent the most feasible and frequently adopted methods for producing hybrid yarns within conventional ring spinning lines. While it is acknowledged that hybrid yarns can also be manufactured using alternative technologies such as open-end spinning systems (e.g., rotor and friction) or wrapping-based techniques, these methods are predominantly used for technical textiles and are less commonly employed in the context of apparel manufacturing. Therefore, the chosen configurations aim to reflect the most relevant and industrially applicable practices for garment-related end uses. In this study systematically analyzed and evaluated the influence of hybrid yarn structures on polyester–viscose knitted fabrics’ mechanical, comfort, and drying properties. Specifically, the drying and comfort performance improvements in polyester–viscose knitted fabric characteristics are achieved through hybrid yarns produced by core-spun and siro-spun spinning techniques.

Methodology

Materials

This study selected two of the most commonly used raw materials in garment production: 100% polyester (PES) and 100% viscose (CV) fibers. Standard commercially available fibers were employed during yarn production. The polyester fibers had a length of 38 mm, fineness of 1.33 dtex, and tensile strength of approximately 4.5 cN/dtex, while the viscose fibers had a length of 38 mm, fineness of 1.5 dtex, and tensile strength of approximately 2.0 cN/dtex. Polyester fibers, mainly composed of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), are hydrophobic in nature (with a moisture regain of 0.4–0.8%) and thermoplastic. Viscose fiber is a type of regenerated cellulose, widely recognized for its hydrophilic nature (with a moisture regain of 11%) and good dyeability. It has a semicrystalline structure, balancing softness and breathability. We used 100% viscose rovings (Ne 1.02) and 100% polyester rovings (Ne 0.95) for all spinning trials.

Yarn and fabric production

Siro-spun and core-spun yarn spinning methods were used for the production of the hybrid yarns. In addition, 100% PES and 100% CV ring yarns were produced for comparison. The yarns were produced in a Merlin ring spinning frame (Pinter Group, Spain). The core material (spun yarn with S twist) was previously produced by the ring-spinning method. The experimental plan is given in Table 1.

Table 1.

Experimental plan

Sample label	Spinning method	Material 1	Material 2	Yarn count
PES	Ring-spun	100% PES	–	25 tex
CV	Ring-spun	100% CV	–	25 tex
PES+CV	Siro-spun	100% PES	100% CV	25 tex
PES/CV	Core-spun	Sheath: 100% PES	Core: 100% CV	25 tex
CV/PES	Core-spun	Sheath: 100% CV	Core: 100% PES	25 tex

According to the experimental plan, different types of yarn were produced on the Pinter Merlin Ring spinning machine. The yarn production parameters are provided in Table 2.

Table 2.

Yarn production parameters

Material	Spinning method	Nominal yarn count	Draft ratio	α_t	T/m	Twist direction	Traveller ISO No.	Spindle speed (revolution per minute)
PES+CV	Siro-spun	25 tex	25	18.5	733	Z	50	15,000
PES	Ring-spun	25 tex	25	18.5	733	Z	50	15,000
CV	Ring-spun	25 tex	27	18.5	733	Z	50	15,000
CV (for core)	Ring-spun	12.5 tex	52	18.5	1,036	S	28	10,000
PES-CV	Core-spun	25 tex	52	18.5	733	Z	50	15,000
PES (for core)	Ring- pun	12.5 tex	50	18.5	1,035	S	28	10,000
CV-PES	Core-spun	25 tex	50	18.5	733	Z	50	15,000

α_t (alpha tex) is the twist factor (torsion angle), expressed in the tex system; ISO No. is the Traveller weight in mg.

The final yarn count was 25 tex and was produced with a Z-twist. However, in the production of core-spun yarns, the spun yarn fed into the core, was produced with an S-twist to prevent twist liveliness. We produced 100% polyester and 100% viscose ring-spun yarns, core-spun yarns with CV yarn in the core and polyester fibers in the sheath, as well as yarns with polyester yarns in the core and CV fibers in the sheath. In addition, siro-spun yarns (PES + CV) were produced by combining one polyester roving and one viscose roving after drafting zone. The structures of hybrid yarns produced by different techniques were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). From these yarns, 1 × 1 rib knitted fabrics were produced on a Fouque Circular Knitting Machine (Germany) with the same loop density. The knitting machine has a fineness of E18, with 36 systems and 1680 needles.

Characterization

The effects of hybrid yarn structure on yarn and fabric properties were investigated. Thus, the advantages that hybrid yarns can provide in meeting the desired properties of a product were identified. For this purpose, the yarn count, yarn tenacity, elongation at break, yarn unevenness and Imperfection Index (IPI) values, hairiness, yarn diameter, and density were measured. The yarn’s tensile tests were performed using the Lloyd Instrument (Ametek Sensors, Test & Calibration, Denmark; CRE type, test speed 100 m/min, testing gauge 250 mm), and 10 measurements were taken from 3 yarn packages of each type. The IPI and hairiness values of the yarns were measured using the Uster Tester 5 device (Uster Technologies, Switzerland) from three yarn packages for each yarn type.

Regarding fabric performance, thickness (Wira Digital Thickness, Wira Instrumentation, UK; EN ISO 5034), mass per unit area (EN 12127), loop length, bursting strength (TruBurst, James Heal, UK; 50 cm² test area, 15 kPa/s, calibration 36.9 kPa; EN ISO 13938-2), air permeability (FX3300, TexTest Instruments, Switzerland; EN ISO 9237), water vapor permeability (Permetest Sensora, Czech Republic; ISO 11092), and drying times (Radwag, UK) were tested and evaluated.

The fabrics’ porosity values were calculated according to

Total porosity (ε) = (1 - \frac{Yarn volume}{Total volume}) = (1 - \frac{π d^{2} l c w}{2 t})

(1)

Yarn volume was calculated according to

Yarn volume = (π {(\frac{d}{2})}^{2} 2 l) = \frac{π d^{2} l}{2}

(2)

where d is the yarn diameter (cm) and l is the elementary loop length (cm). Total porosity, that describes the geometrical porosity, was calculated according to

Total volume = \frac{1}{c} \frac{1}{w} t = \frac{t}{c w}

(3)

where c is number of courses per centimeter, w is the number of wales per centimeter, and t is the fabric thickness (cm).^58,59 In addition, optical porosity of the fabrics was determined by using image analysis.⁶⁰

The drying test involved taking samples from conditioned fabrics (under laboratory conditions of 20 ± 2°C temperature and 65 ± 4% relative humidity) in three sets (each set containing five samples). The dry weight of each sample was measured, then a drop (500 µl) of pure water was applied, and the samples were weighed again. Each set was weighed at 5-minute intervals until the dry weight was reached again.^61,62

The Moisture Management Tester (MMT; SDL Atlas, USA) was used to test the liquid moisture transport capabilities of the fabrics. The MMT was designed to sense, measure, and record the liquid moisture transport behaviors in multiple directions. In the device, the upper surface simulates the side of the fabric that is close to the human skin when wearing clothing, whereas the lower surface represents the side exposed to the external environment. The MMT device measures the wetting time (top–bottom), absorption rate (top–bottom), maximum wetted radius (top–bottom), wetting speed (top–bottom), cumulative one-way transport index, and overall liquid management performance of the fabrics. In order to simulate sweating, a special solution was prepared and dropped onto the fabric’s top surface.⁶³ During the test, the instrument automatically applied the same quantity of solution (0.15 g) onto each specimen’s top surface (AATCC Test Method 195). Cumulative one-way transport index quantifies the differential in cumulative moisture content between the inner and outer surfaces of the fabric and constitutes a key parameter influencing the fabric’s drying efficiency.⁶⁴ Overall moisture management capacity (OMMC) is a comprehensive index that characterizes the fabric’s total liquid moisture management capability, encompassing absorption, transmission, and evaporation dynamics.⁶⁵

Furthermore, the drop test was performed by using a colored solution. Before the test, 0.06 g solution was dropped onto the fabrics followed by a 3 min wait. The spreading areas were observed, and the wetted area was calculated (Figure 1(a), (b)). In addition, the water contact angle of fabrics was measured using the CSVCam 101 device and the water drop method. A drop of pure water was placed on the fabric with a syringe, and its image was captured. The contact angle between the drop and the fabric surface was calculated. The initial droplet and the drop after 6 seconds were given in Figure 1(c) whereas the contact angles test results are given later in Figure 7.⁶⁶

Figure 1.

Drop test and contact angle test.

The abrasion resistance of the fabrics was analyzed with Martindale Abrasion tester (SDL Atlas, USA) according to EN ISO 12947-2:2001. Circular samples of 38 mm diameter were cut and a force of 9 kPa was applied on top of the specimen to hold it against the standard abradant wool woven fabric and rubbed 20,000 times. This test was carried out three times and the hole formation was examined for each specimen.

The pilling values of the fabrics were measured according to the ISO 12945-2 standard using the Martindale pilling and abrasion testing device (SDL Atlas, USA). Samples with a diameter of 140 mm were prepared, and the test was conducted in three repetitions. After 2000 cycles, the samples were evaluated subjectively by comparing them with standard grading pictures.⁶⁷

Statistical analysis

SPSS IBM 20 software was used for the statistical analysis of the results. Testing the homogeneity of variance is a critical step in statistical analysis, especially when using parametric tests such as analysis of variance (ANOVA). Levene’s test is used to assess the homogeneity of variances across groups. When the p-value exceeds 0.05, the null hypothesis (homogeneity of variances is assumed) is rejected. The Student–Newman–Keuls (SNK) multiple interval test (post hoc statistic) can be used to evaluate the differences in the harmonic mean of the sample. If the assumption of homogeneity is violated, the Tamhane multiple comparison test was performed.

Results and discussion

Yarn properties

The cross-sectional images of the yarns were examined by SEM. The views of the yarns’ cross-sectional are given in Figure 2. The two raw material structures are visible in the cross-section of siro-spun hybrid yarn, while the cross-sectional appearances of core hybrid yarns are more similar to those of ring yarns.

Figure 2.

SEM images of the cross-sectional view of the yarn (magnification 250×).

The yarn cross-section in 100% polyester and 100% viscose yarns was not perfectly round; however, a homogeneous distribution was observed in viscose yarns, whereas polyester yarns exhibited a voided and nonhomogeneous distribution. It has been explicitly identified that viscose fibers become flattened and lose their circular cross-sectional shape. In yarns produced using the siro-spinning method, the diameters were closer to a circular shape, and the voids between the fibers were less than those in 100% polyester but greater than those in 100% viscose. In CV/PES, a flattened fiber structure similar to 100% viscose yarns was observed, yet the distribution was homogeneous. Conversely, in PES/CV yarns, fibers’ cross-sections exhibited a circular, smooth, and homogeneous distribution.

Yarn count, evenness, hairiness and standard variation of hairiness, and yarn tenacity and elongation at break test results are given in Table 3.

Table 3.

Test results of yarn properties and coefficients of variation

	Measured yarn count	Uster evenness	Number of thin places (−50%)	Number of Thick places (+50%)	Number of neps (+200%)	Yarn hairiness		Breaking tenacity		Elongation at break
	(tex)	CVm^a (%)	(km⁻¹)	(km⁻¹)	(km⁻¹)	H	sH	(cN/tex)	(CV%)	(%)	(CV%)
PES	25	10.71	0	10.8	22.5	5.32	1.11	26.14	27.7	16.32	17.76
CV	24	11.42	0	5	10	6.1	1.46	11.73	11.42	22.93	10.53
PES+CV	25	11.49	0.8	10.8	29.2	5.28	1.16	20.21	6.29	19.38	4.96
CV/PES	25	11.18	0.8	10	22.5	5.91	1.22	18.03	8.95	21.54	6.99
PES/CV	25	11.49	0	6.7	50	5.81	1.19	16.38	11.2	14.25	11.50

^aCVm, the coefficient of mass variation, indicating yarn evenness.

The results of the yarn tests were statistically analyzed, and detailed findings are provided in the supplementary material section. According to the variance analysis (ANOVA), the influence of yarn structure on Uster CV%, yarn hairiness (H), yarn tenacity (cN/tex), and elongation at break (%) values was found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05) (Table 4).

Table 4.

Variance analysis of yarn test results (ANOVA)

	Uster (CV%)	Thin places	Thick places	Nep values	Uster hairiness H	Yarn tenacity	Elongation at break (%)
F	5.057	0.75	1.561	2.937	7.252	29.532	26.771
Significance	0.017*	0.58	0.258	0.076	0.005 *	0.000*	0.000*

*Significant for α = 0.05.

The homogeneity of variances was first tested using Levene’s test (Table S1) to assess the differences among the groups. For the Uster CV% and elongation at break (%) values, where no significant differences were found between the variance values, the SNK test was applied. In contrast, the Tamhane test was used for yarn hairiness (H) and yarn tenacity values.

The results indicated that 100% polyester ring-spun yarns exhibited the highest, whereas 100% viscose ring-spun yarns showed the lowest yarn tenacity values (Figure 3). In addition, the yarn tenacity values of hybrid yarns were higher than, those of 100% viscose ring-spun yarns, and the differences were statistically significant (Table S2). Polyester in the core resulted in higher tenacity values than viscose as the core component. This phenomenon is due to the naturally higher tenacity and lower elongation of polyester fibers than viscose fibers, which directly affects yarn strength. Viscose fibers are more extensible but relatively weaker.

Figure 3.

Hairiness, unevenness, breaking elongation, and tenacity values of hybrid yarns.

The elongation at break value of siro-spun hybrid yarn was higher than the elongation values of CV/PES, and the difference between them was significant (Table S3), while was similar to the elongation values of PES/CV. Viscose fibers in the yarn structure enhanced the elongation at break. These results indicate that sheet fibers have a greater influence on elongation values in core-spun yarns. The sheath fibers are wrapped around this spun yarn during the spinning process. This configuration influences the final yarn’s surface characteristics (e.g., increased hairiness due to sheath migration), while the mechanical behavior is a combination of the properties of both the core yarn and the sheath fibers.

When yarn unevenness values were compared, the lowest values were found in 100% polyester ring-spun yarns, and the differences between the 100% polyester ring-spun yarn’s value and the others’ values were found to be statistically significant (Table S4).

The yarn hairiness value of siro-spun hybrid PES+CV yarn was the lowest⁶⁷; the values of core-spun hybrid yarns and 100% viscose yarns were very close (Figure 3). The difference in the hairiness value of the siro-spun yarn and the hairiness values of CV ring-spun yarn and core-spun CV/PES yarn was statistically significant (Table S3). The siro-spun process effectively binds the fibers together during spinning, reducing loose fiber ends and this result in a smoother yarn surface with less protruding fibers compared with the conventional ring-spun method.⁶⁸ Siro-spun yarns, offer improved fiber alignment and drafting stability. This results in yarns with reduced unevenness and better load distribution, while slightly decreasing hairiness due to more controlled fiber migration.

The comparison of yarn diameters (⌀, measured in millimeters) and yarn densities (ρ, measured in grams per cubic centimeter) for yarns produced using different spinning methods and material compositions are illustrated in Figure 4. All yarn types exhibit similar yarn diameter values, with minor variations. Siro-spun and ring-spun yarns display slightly lower diameters than the core-spun hybrid yarns (PES/CV and CV/PES). In addition, while the densities of ring-spun yarns (PES and CV) are greater than those of the hybrid yarns, the density value of siro-spun hybrid yarns is comparable to that of ring-spun yarns. While yarn diameter increases, yarn density decreases since density is inversely proportional to volume.

Figure 4.

Yarn diameter (⌀) and density (ρ) values of the spun yarns.

Fabric properties

The mechanical (such as pilling, abrasion resistance, and bursting strength) and the comfort (such as air permeability, water vapor permeability, moisture management, and drying time) characteristics of the samples were examined in detail and are given in Table 5.

Table 5.

Results of the fabric’s mechanical and permeability properties

	Mass per unit area		Thickness		Air permeability	Water vapor permeability	One-way transport index	OMMC
	(g/m²)	CV%	(mm)	CV%	(l/m²/s)	(%)	(%)
PES	179.3	2.94	0.967	4.27	2303.5	59.2	404.92	0.73
CV	192.37	1.81	0.964	4.45	3167.5	56.1	91.32	0.41
PES+CV	212.13	5.18	0.987	5.43	2525	57.2	234.31	0.56
PES/CV	181.83	3.7	0.918	2.64	2704	55.5	984.75	0.67
CV/PES	205.73	3.85	0.965	2.83	2896	55.3	1047.83	0.67

Pilling in fabrics occurs when loose fibers on the fabric surface entangle, creating small balls of fiber. The likelihood of fabric pilling is affected by the properties of the fibers, the structure of the yarn and fabric, and the finishing processes used.⁶⁹ The tendency for pilling in knitted fabrics is determined by a combination of factors, including fiber length, strength, fineness, blend composition, yarn structure, and spinning techniques. Weak fibers break easily under friction, forming loose fiber ends that lead to pilling. On the other hand, stronger fibers resist breakage and reduce the chance of pill formation. However, it has not been forgotten that polyester fibers form stronger pills that do not easily detach, making pilling more persistent. Using longer and stronger fibers, compact spun, and siro-spun yarns, higher yarn twists, and suitable fiber blends are preferable to reduce fabric pilling tendency. When the pilling properties of the samples were evaluated, they were found to be poor. Only the values of the hybrid yarn with polyester sheath and the 100% polyester fabrics were slightly better than the other fabrics (Figure 5). A previous study that compared ring-spun and siro-spun yarns and the fabrics produced from them stated that siro-spun yarns have lower hairiness and better pilling resistance.⁷⁰ However, the fabric with siro-spun hybrid yarns has a similar pilling tendency to the core spun CV/PES hybrid yarn fabric and CV ring spun yarn fabric in this study. This phenomenon is due to the production process, where PES and CV roving are fed separately instead of using fiber blends. Due to the higher pilling tendency of viscose fibers, it was determined that although the siro-spun yarn hairiness value was the lowest among all yarn types, the fabric pilling tendency was high. The pilling resistance of fabric with core-spun yarns depends on the sheath material, core–sheath adhesion, and yarn hairiness.⁷¹ However, the pilling properties of fabrics that used the core spun hybrid yarns showed the same tendency as those with 100% PES and CV fabrics using the ring spun yarns in this study.

Figure 5.

Fabrics after the pilling test and weight loss after 20,000 cycles in abrasion test (*pilling degree; **weight loss (%)).

Regarding abrasion resistance, the results of the fabrics were revealed that there was no hole formation up to 20,000 rubs for all samples. During the first 5000 cycles, an increase in fabric weight was observed in all samples. This can be explained by fiber migration from the abrasive cloth to the test specimen. When evaluating the percentage weight loss at 20,000 cycles, relative to the initial fabric weight, as expected, the highest weight loss occurred in 100% viscose fabrics, while the lowest was observed in fabrics made from 100% PES yarns. The abrasion resistance of fabrics produced from hybrid yarns remained at an average level, close to 100% PES ring spun yarns, regardless of whether the yarns were core-spun or siro-spun. In the evaluation of fabric abrasion resistance, the influence of the raw material type proved to be more affective than that of the yarn type.

The results of bursting strength, water vapor, and air permeability tests were statistically analyzed and the influence of yarn structure on both of these properties was found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05; see Table S6 in the supplementary material section). The homogeneity of variances was initially tested using Levene’s test (Table 6) to assess the differences among the groups. For the water vapor permeability, air permeability, and bursting strength values, where no significant differences were found between the variance values, the SNK test was applied.

Table 6.

Variance analysis of fabric test results (ANOVA)

	F	Significance
Water vapor permeability (%)	5.857	0.011*
Air permeability	28.918	0.000*
Bursting strength	140.282	0.000*

Significant for α = 0.05.

The bursting strength of the fabrics produced from hybrid yarns was higher than that of 100% viscose fabric and lower than that of 100% polyester fabrics (Figure 6 and Table 6). Due to yarn tenacity, which is affected primarily from fiber properties, 100% polyester fabrics had the highest, whereas 100% CV fabrics had the lowest bursting strength.⁷²

Figure 6.

Fabrics’ bursting strength values.

The water vapor permeability values of fabrics produced from core-spun hybrid yarns and 100% viscose fabrics were found to be close to each other and lower than the other two fabric types (Figure 7 and Table S7). It was seen that the yarn hairiness and yarn diameter values were the most effective parameters in water vapor permeability. The water vapor permeability of fabrics made from 100% polyester and siro-spun hybrid yarns, characterized by reduced hairiness and smaller diameter, was observed to be higher than that of fabrics produced using core-spun hybrid yarns and 100% viscose yarns, which exhibited greater hairiness and larger diameter values.

Figure 7.

Fabrics’ air permeability and water vapor permeability values.

The results of air permeability indicated that yarn hairiness was less effective on the air permeability than the water vapor permeability because of the methodology of air permeability measurement, in which air pressure is applied. Hereby, the effect of yarn diameter on air permeability was observed as an important factor. The air permeability values of the fabrics knitted with core-spun hybrid yarns were found to be lower than the fabric produced from 100% viscose yarn, and the difference in their values was statistically significant (Table S8).

In terms of optical fabric porosity, it was seen that the porosity of samples produced from core-spun hybrid yarns and 100% viscose yarns were higher than those values of 100% polyester ring yarn and siro-spun hybrid yarn (Figure 8). Optical porosity which indicated the porous fabric surfaces was determined with image analysis (Figure 8). Due to the higher optical porosity of these fabrics, air permeability was also high.⁷³ This situation has been supported by the correlation analysis. A high positive correlation (r = 0.82) was found between air permeability and optical porosity, which means that air permeability increase with the increase of optical porosity.

Figure 8.

Optical porosity (%) versus geometrical porosity (%).

In Figure 8, the geometrical porosity, expressed as (%), compared with the optical porosity. The difference between two different porosity evaluation methods is thought to arise from different yarn geometries due to different spinning systems. As is well known, yarn diameter is used to calculate geometric porosity. However, variations in yarn diameter and fiber positioning in yarns produced with different spinning systems can affect the suitability of the formula used because of differing intra-yarn stress, leading to various relaxation ratios.

Moisture management refers to regulating the transfer of liquid (such as perspiration) from the skin to the external environment through a textile. It involves the engineered or natural movement of water vapor or liquid sweat through the fabric.^74,75 The results of accumulative one-way transport index and OMMC values for the tested fabrics were summarized in Table 4. Aligned with the existing literature, the OMMC values for the 100% viscose fabrics were the lowest, whereas 100% polyester fabrics were the highest among all samples.^75,76 Viscose fibers are highly hygroscopic, meaning they absorb water quickly. The OMMC values and one-way liquid transport indexes for 100% polyester fabrics and those made from siro-spun hybrid yarns were similar. Consistent with previous studies, viscose fibers rapidly absorb water since the liquid penetrate into amorphous regions of viscose fibers resulting in swelling of the structure, which prevents the spreading of liquid moisture and lengthens the drying time. This phenomenon reduced the transfer rate to the back surface of the fabric, and viscose fiber content resulted in a decrease in OMMC.^53,77,78 In this study, the accumulative one-way transfer index of the fabrics produced from 100% viscose ring-spun yarns and CV/PES core-spun hybrid yarns were found to be lower among all samples. The highest one-way transfer index was observed in the fabric produced by core hybrid yarns.

According to the drop test, the wetted area of the samples, which indicated the wicking property, can be correlated with moisture management properties. As seen in Figure 1, the fabrics knitted with CV/PES hybrid yarns achieved better wicking properties with the biggest spreading area and the highest contact angle due to the capillarity effect of polyester fiber within the core structure of yarn that enables rapid moisture dispersion without trapping it. In contrast, the fabrics knitted with PES/CV hybrid yarns had worse wicking properties with a smaller spreading area, higher absorption rate, and entrapped moisture within the structure. The fabrics knitted with PES+CV siro-spun yarns result in a melange effect by the mouline yarn structure since the viscose component mostly absorbs the solution. In addition, the color of the solution revealed that 100% viscose fabrics showed the darkest color as it shows more absorption and less spreading effect (Figure 9). These results were also parallel to OMMC and drying times.

Figure 9.

Spreading area (cm²) of the drop and contact angle in the 5th second.

In terms of fabric drying time, the fastest drying fabric was naturally 100% polyester (90 min), while the slowest drying was 100% viscose (220 min) (Figure 10). As is well known, higher swelling degree of viscose fabrics lengthens the drying time.⁷⁸ The drying time of the fabric produced from siro-spun yarn (150 min) was lower than that from hybrid yarns. Fabrics produced with CV/PES yarns (165 min) dried faster than those produced from yarns with PES on the outside (190 min). The drying time of fabrics produced from core-spun yarns with viscose fibers on the outside and polyester yarn on the inside was shorter than those produced from other core hybrid yarns and 100% viscose. As mentioned before, the fabrics knitted with CV/PES hybrid yarns achieved better wicking properties with the biggest spreading area and higher one-way transport index (1047.83) resulted faster drying. This is also proved with the measurement of contact angle as given Figure 9.

Figure 10.

Drying time of the fabrics.

Conclusion

This study has systematically investigated the effect of hybrid yarn structures on the mechanical, comfort, and drying properties of polyester–viscose knitted fabrics. In contrast to previous research,^51–56 which predominantly focused on classical blends, this study has employed hybrid yarn structures to fabricate polyester–viscose fabrics. A comprehensive evaluation of the results is summarized as follows.

Polyester fibers inherently exhibit higher tensile strength and lower elongation, whereas viscose fibers are more extensible but relatively weaker. These fundamental differences contribute to the mechanical behavior of the resulting yarns. Ring-spun yarns produce a relatively compact structure with well-integrated fibers aligned along the yarn axis, leading to moderate hairiness and good strength properties. Siro-spun yarns, which are produced by feeding two rovings in parallel during spinning, offer improved fiber alignment and drafting stability. This results in yarns with reduced unevenness and better load distribution, while slightly decreasing hairiness due to more controlled fiber migration. In the case of core-spun yarns used in this study, the core component is not a filament but a prespun ring yarn. The sheath fibers are wrapped around this spun yarn during the spinning process. This configuration influences the final yarn’s surface characteristics (e.g., increased hairiness due to sheath migration), while the mechanical behavior is a combination of the properties of both the core yarn and the sheath fibers, also affecting fabric characteristics.

Regarding yarn characteristics, the tenacity of the hybrid yarns was found to exceed that of 100% viscose conventional ring yarns. Conversely, although 100% polyester ring yarns exhibited high tenacity, they demonstrated relatively low elongation. The hybrid yarn in which a polyester ring-spun yarn core is covered with viscose fiber sheath, positively impacted both strength and elongation. Notably, siro-spun yarns displayed the lowest hairiness values.

The fabric structure produced from core-spun hybrid yarns with viscose fiber sheath and polyester yarn core, enhances faster drying and increased bursting strength. Furthermore, this yarn provides better moisture and wicking properties in fabrics.

The properties of polyester–viscose hybrid siro-spun yarn and fabric were found to be distinctive compared with hybrid core spun yarns and fabrics, which proves the significance of the production method on yarn and fabric’ performance. Different hybrid yarn structures can achieve the desired performance properties from products. Fabrics produced from hybrid yarns exhibit water vapor permeability comparable to that of 100% polyester fabrics while enhancing higher air permeability similar to 100% viscose fabrics. In addition, their moisture transmission is significantly higher than all other samples, ensuring the most optimal one-way moisture transport. Specifically, fabrics produced from CV/PES hybrid yarns exhibited excellent performance in terms of drying and wicking properties.

Based on these results, by strategically selecting hybrid yarn structures, manufacturers can optimize fabric properties to balance durability, functionality, and aesthetics, enabling innovative textile applications in both fashion and technical textiles. Hybrid yarn structures can improve the performance and design versatility of knitted and woven fabrics. From a different perspective, by utilizing the distinct dyeing properties of polyester and viscose, various aesthetic effects can be achieved, while improving the permeability, strength, and drying properties of fabrics can inspire innovative solutions.

Footnotes

Data availability

The author(s) can confirm that all relevant data are included in the article.

Declaration of competing interest

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

This research was funded by the Slovenian Research Agency, Slovenia (Programme P2-0213 Textiles and Ecology and Infrastructural Centre RIC UL-NTF).

Supplementary material

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at …………

ORCID iDs

Pinar Çelik

Nida Gülsevin

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Effect of hybrid yarn configurations on moisture management,permeability,and mechanical performance of polyester–viscose knitted fabrics

Abstract

Keywords

Methodology

Materials

Yarn and fabric production

Characterization

Statistical analysis

Results and discussion

Yarn properties

Fabric properties

Conclusion

Footnotes

Data availability

Declaration of competing interest

Funding

Supplementary material

ORCID iDs

References