Social capital is widely cited as benefiting children’s school performance, but close inspection of existing research yields inconsistent findings. Focusing on intergenerational closure among parents of children in the same school, this article draws from a field experiment to test the effects of social capital on children’s achievement in reading and mathematics. When children were in first grade, their schools were randomly assigned to an after-school family-based intervention that boosts social capital. A total of 52 schools in Phoenix, Arizona, and San Antonio, Texas, containing over 3,000 first graders, participated in the study, with half the schools in each city assigned to the treatment group and half serving as no-treatment controls. Two years later, no differences in third-grade achievement were evident between children who had been in treatment schools versus control schools. By contrast, nonexperimental analyses of survey-based measures of social capital suggest positive effects on achievement, indicating that naïve estimates based on survey measures may be upwardly biased by unobserved conditions that lead to both stronger ties among parents and higher test scores. This article adds to a growing literature that raises doubts about the effects of this type of social capital for achievement outcomes among young children.
Bandeira de MelloVictorBlankenshipCharlesMcLaughlinDon H.2009. Mapping State Proficiency Standards onto NAEP Scales: 2005-2007 (NCES 2010-456). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
4.
BanerjeeAbhijit V.DufloEsther. 2009. “The Experimental Approach to Development Economics.” Annual Review of Economics1:151–78.
5.
BankstonCarl L.ZhouMin. 2002. “Social Capital as Process: The Meanings and Problems of a Theoretical Metaphor.” Sociological Inquiry72:285–317.
6.
BloomHoward. 1984. “Accounting for No-Shows in Experimental Evaluation Designs.” Evaluation Review8:225–46.
7.
BosJohannesSpierElizabethBandeira de MelloVictorGonzalesRaquelHuangFangyi. 2018. Investing in Innovation (i3) Validation Study of Families and Schools Together (FAST). San Mateo, CA: American Institutes for Research.
8.
BourdieuPierre. 1986. “The Forms of Capital.” Pp. 241–58 in Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by RichardsonJ. G.New York, NY: Greenwood.
9.
BrykAnthony S.SchneiderBarbara L.2002. Trust in Schools: A Core Resource for Improvement. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
10.
CarbonaroWilliam. J.1998. “A Little Help from My Friend’s Parents: Intergenerational Closure and Educational Outcomes.” Sociology of Education71:295–313.
ColemanJames S.1988. “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital.” American Journal of Sociology94:S95–120.
13.
ColemanJames S.1990. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
14.
ColemanJames S.HofferThomas. 1987. Public and Private High Schools: The Impact of Communities. New York, NY: Basic Books.
15.
CondronDennis J.2009. “Social Class, School and Non-school Environments, and Black/White Inequalities in Children’s Learning.” American Sociological Review74:683–708.
16.
CunhaFlavioHeckmanJames. 2007. “The Technology of Skill Formation.” American Economic Review97:31–47.
17.
DemingDavid. 2017. “The Growing Importance of Social Skills in the Labor Market.” Quarterly Journal of Economics132:1593–640.
18.
DikaSandra L.SinghKusum. 2002. “Applications of Social Capital in Educational Literature: A Critical Synthesis.” Review of Educational Research72:31–60.
19.
DominaThurston. 2005. “Leveling the Home Advantage: Assessing the Effectiveness of Parental Involvement in Elementary School.” Sociology of Education78:233–49.
20.
DufloEsther. 2007. “Field Experiments in Development Economics.” Pp. 322–48 in Advances in Economic Theory and Econometrics: Theory and Applications (Econometrics Society Monographs No. 42), edited by BlundellR.NeweyW. K.PerssonT.Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
21.
DufurMikaela J.ParcelToby J.HoffmannJohn P.BraudtDavid B.2016. “Who Has the Advantage? Race and Sex Differences in Returns to Social Capital at Home and at School.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility45:27–40.
22.
DufurMikaela J.ParcelToby L.TroutmanKelly P.2013. “Does Social Capital at Home Matter More Than Capital at School? Social Capital Effects on Academic Achievement.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility31:1–21.
23.
DuncanGreg J.DowsettChangelle J.ClaessensAmyMagnusonKatherineHustonAletha C.KlebanovPamelaPaganiLinda S.FeinsteinLeonEngelMimiBrooks-GunnJeanneSextonHollyDuckworthKathrynJapelCrista. 2007. “School Readiness and Later Achievement.” Developmental Psychology43:1428–46.
24.
DurlaufSteven N.2002. “On the Empirics of Social Capital.” Economic Journal112:F459–79.
25.
FasangAnette EvaManginoWilliamBrücknerHannah. 2014. “Social Closure and Educational Attainment.” Sociological Forum29:137–64.
26.
FielJeremyMeganM.ShojiM.GamoranAdam. 2015. “An Intervention Approach to Building Social Capital: Effects on Grade Retention.” Pp. 262–91 in The Handbook of Research Methods and Applications on Social Capital, edited by LiY.Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing.
27.
FreemanKendralin J.CondronDennis J.2011. “Schmoozing in Elementary School: The Importance of Social Capital to First Graders.” Sociological Perspectives54:521–46.
28.
Furstenberg, Jr.Frank M.HughesMary E.1995. “Social Capital and Successful Development among At-Risk Youth.” Journal of Marriage and the Family57:580–92.
29.
GamoranAdamTurleyTurleyRuth N. LópezTurnerAlynFishRachel. 2012. “Differences between Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Families in Social Capital and Child Development: First-Year Findings from an Experimental Study.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility30:97–112.
30.
GevenSaravan de WerfhorstHerman G.2020. “The Role of Intergenerational Networks in Students’ School Performance in Two Differentiated Educational Systems: A Comparison of Between- and Within-Individual Estimates.” Sociology of Education93:40–64.
HartSusan CrandallDiPernaJames ClydeLeiPui-WaChengWeiyi. 2020. “Nothing Lost, Something Gained? Impact of a Universal Social-Emotional Learning Program on Future State Test Performance.” Educational Researcher49(1):5–19.
33.
HorvatErin M.WeiningerElliot B.LareauAnnette. 2003. “From Social Ties to Social Capital: Class Differences in the Relations between Schools and Parent Networks.” American Educational Research Journal40:319–51.
34.
ImaiKosukeKeeleLukeTingleyDustin. 2010. “A General Approach to Causal Mediation Analysis.” Psychological Methods15:309–34.
35.
IsraelGlenn D.BeaulieuLionel J.HartlessGlen. 2001. “The Influence of Family and Community Social Capital on Educational Achievement.” Rural Sociology66:43–68.
36.
KaoGraceRutherfordLindsay T.2007. “Does Social Capital Still Matter? Immigrant Minority Disadvantage in School-Specific Social Capital and Its Effects on Academic Achievement.” Sociological Perspectives50:27–52.
37.
KautzTimHeckmanJames J.DirisRonWeelBas terBorghansLex. 2014. Fostering and Measuring Skills: Improving Cognitive and Non-cognitive Skills to Promote Lifetime Success. Paris: OECD.
38.
KratochwillThomas R.McDonaldLynnLevinJoel R.ScaliaPhyllis A.CooverGail. 2009. “Families and Schools Together: An Experimental Study of Multi-family Support Groups for Children at Risk.” Journal of School Psychology47:245–65.
39.
KratochwillThomas R.McDonaldLynnLevinJoel R.Bear-TibbettsHolly YoungDemarayMichelle K.2004. “Families and Schools Together: An Experimental Analysis of a Parent-Mediated Multi-family Group Program for American Indian Children.” Journal of School Psychology42:359–83.
40.
LayzerJean I.GoodsonBarbaraCrepsCindyWernerAlanBernsteinLawrence. 2001. National Evaluation of Family Support Programs, Volume B: Research Studies. Final Report. Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates.
41.
LordPippaStylesBenMorrisonJoWhiteRichardAndradeJoanaBamfordSusieLusheyClareLucasMeganSmithRobert. 2018. Families and Schools Together (FAST) Evaluation Report and Executive Summary. London: Educational Endowment Foundation.
42.
McDonaldLynn. 2002. Research Background of Each FAST Activity for Multi-family Group Meetings. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Center for Education Research, Madison.
43.
McDonaldLynnBillinghamStephenConradTammyMorganArthurNancyO.PaytonEstella. 1997. “Families and Schools Together (FAST): Integrating Community Development with Clinical Strategy.” Families in Society78:140–55.
44.
McDonaldLynnFreyHeather E.1999. Families and Schools Together: Building Relationships. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/173423.pdf.
45.
McDonaldLynnMobergD. PaulBrownRogerRodriguez-EspiricuetaIsmaelFloresNydia I.BurkeMelissa P.CooverGail. 2006. “After-School Multifamily Groups: A Randomized Controlled Trial Involving Low-Income, Urban, Latino Children.” Children and Schools18:25–34.
46.
McNealRalph B.1999. “Parental Involvement as Social Capital: Differential Effectiveness on Science Achievement, Truancy, and Dropping Out.” Social Forces78:117–44.
47.
MorganStephen L.SørensenAage B.1999. “Parental Networks, Social Closure, and Mathematics Learning: A Test of Coleman’s Social Capital Explanation of School Effects.” American Sociological Review64:661–81.
48.
MorganStephen L.ToddJennifer J.2009. “Intergenerational Closure and Academic Achievement in High School: A New Evaluation of Coleman’s Conjecture.” Sociology of Education82:267–86.
49.
MouwTed2006. “Estimating the Causal Effects of Social Capital: A Review of Recent Research.” Annual Review of Sociology32:79–102.
50.
MurrayBrittanyDominaThurstonPettsAmyRenzulliLindaBoylanRebecca. 2020. “‘We’re All in This Together’: Bridging and Bonding Social Capital in Elementary School PTOs.” American Educational Research Journal57: 2210–44.
51.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2019. A Roadmap to Reducing Child Poverty. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
52.
PongSuet-Ling. 1998. “The School Compositional Effect of Single Parenthood on 10th-Grade Achievement.” Sociology of Education71:23–42.
53.
PortesAlejandro. 1998. “Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology.” Annual Review of Sociology24:1–24.
54.
PortesAlejandro. 2000. “The Two Meanings of Social Capital.” Sociological Forum15:1–12.
55.
PribeshShanaDowneyDouglas B.1999. “Why Are Residential and School Moves Associated with Poor School Performance?”Demography36:521–34.
56.
PutnamRobert D.2015. Our Kids: The American Dream in Crisis. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
57.
RangelDavidShojiMeganGamoranAdam. 2020. “Family Engagement and Social Capital: An Empirical Test with Families in Low-Income, Latino Communities.” American Educational Research Journal57:2450–84.
58.
Rodriguez MenésJorgeDonatoLuisa. 2015. “Social Capital, Social Cohesion, and Cognitive Attainment.” Pp. 324–43 in The Handbook of Research Methods and Applications on Social Capital, edited by LiY.Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing.
59.
SampsonRobert J.MorenoffJeffrey D.EarlsFelton. 1999. “Beyond Social Capital: Spatial Dynamics of Collective Efficacy for Children.” American Sociological Review64:633–60.
60.
ShojiMegan.2014. “Nice to Meet You? Exploring the Development of Supportive Parent-School Relationships in Low-Income Latino Communities.” PhD dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
61.
ShojiMeganHaskinsAnna R.RangelDavid E.SorensenKia N.2014. “The Emergence of Social Capital in Low-Income Latino Elementary Schools.” Early Childhood Research Quarterly29:600–13.
62.
ShrinerMichaelMullisRonald L.SchleeBethanne M.2009. “The Usefulness of Social Capital Theory for Understanding the Academic Improvement of Young Children in Stepfamilies over Two Points in Time.” Journal of Divorce & Remarriage50:445–58.
63.
SmithTyler E.SheridanSusan M.KimElizabeth M.ParkSunyoungBeretvasS. Natasha. 2020. “The Effects of Family-School Partnership Interventions on Academic and Social-Emotional Functioning: A Meta-analysis Exploring What Works for Whom.” Educational Psychology Review32:511–44.
64.
SmithVernon L.1989. “Theory, Experiment and Economics.” Journal of Economic Perspectives3:151–69.
65.
Stanton-SalazarRicardo D.DornbuschSanford M.1995. “Social Capital and the Reproduction of Inequality: Information Networks among Mexican- Origin High School Students.” Sociology of Education68:116–35.
66.
StataCorp. 2019. Stata Multiple Imputation Reference Manual. Release 16. College Station, TX: Stata Press.
67.
Suárez-OrozcoCarolaYoshikawaHirokazuTeranishiRobert T.Suárez-OrozcoMarcelo M.2011. “Growing Up in the Shadows: The Developmental Implications of Unauthorized Status.” Harvard Educational Review81:438–72.
68.
SunYongmin. 1998. “The Academic Success of East- Asian-American Students: An Investment Model.” Social Science Research27:432–56.
69.
SunYongmin. 1999. “The Contextual Effects of Community Social Capital on Academic Performance.” Social Science Research28:403–26.
70.
TingleyDustinYamamotoTeppeiHiroseKentaroKeeleLukeImagiKosuke. 2014. “mediation: R Package for Causal Mediation Analysis.” Journal of Statistical Software59:1–38.
71.
TurleyRuth N. LópezGamoranAdamMcCartyAlyn T.FishRachel. 2017. “Reducing Children’s Behavior Problems through Social Capital: A Causal Assessment.” Social Science Research61:206–17.
72.
ValdezCarmen R.PadillaBrianValentineJessa Lewis. 2013. “Consequences of Arizona’s Immigration Policy on Social Capital among Mexican Mothers with Unauthorized Immigration Status.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Studies35:303–22.
73.
ValenzuelaAngela. 1999. Subtractive Schooling: U.S.-Mexican Youth and the Politics of Caring. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
