The punitive carceral system is expected to tame people of color into docile bodies through their imprisonment. Furthermore, the oppressive and punitive U.S. context embodies patriarchy and injustice in which women of color endure unique obstacles at the intersection of race and gender. Given the power structures built to destabilize women of color before and after incarceration, this study uses interview data to examine their perseverance through carceral systems. The findings illustrate how oppressive regimes shape postincarceration obstacles and explore how women of color combat social-structural inequalities after incarceration.
ApplegateB. K.CullenF. T.FisherB. S. (2002). Public views toward crime and correctional policies: Is there a gender gap?Journal of Criminal Justice, 30, 89-100.
BattleN. T. (2016). From slavery to Jane crow to say her name: An intersectional examination of Black women and punishment. Meridians, 15, 109-136.
4.
BendickM.Jr.JacksonC. W.ReinosoV. A. (1994). Measuring employment discrimination through controlled experiments. The Review of Black Political Economy, 23, 25-48.
5.
BendickM.Jr.JacksonC. W.ReinosoV. A.HodgesL. E. (1991). Discrimination against Latino job applicants: A controlled experiment. Human Resource Management, 30, 469-484.
6.
BergmannB. R. (2005). The economic emergence of women. New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan.
7.
BesharovD. J.LaumannL. A. (1997). Don’t call it child abuse if it’s really poverty. Journal of Children & Poverty, 3, 5-36.
8.
BoboL.ZubrinskyC. L.JohnsonJ. H.Jr.OliverM. L. (1995). Work orientation, job discrimination, and ethnicity: A focus group perspective. Research in the Sociology of Work, 5, 45-85.
9.
BoundJ.DresserL. (1999). Losing ground: The erosion of the relative earnings of African American women during the 1980s. In BrowneI. (Ed.), Latinas and African American women at work: Race, gender, and economic inequality (pp. 61-104). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
10.
BroidyL. M.StewartA. L.ThompsonC. M.ChrzanowskiA.AllardT.DennisonS. M. (2015). Life course offending pathways across gender and race/ethnicity. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 1, 118-149.
11.
BrownG. (2010). The intersectionality of race, gender, and reentry: Challenges for African-American women (Issue brief). Washington, DC: American Constitution Society for Law and Policy.
12.
BrowneI. (2000). Employment and earnings among Latinas and African American women. In BrowneI. (Ed.), Latinas and African American women at work: Race, gender, and economic inequality (pp. 1-31). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
13.
BrowneI.MisraJ. (2003). The intersection of gender and race in the labor market. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 487-513.
14.
BurnhamL. (2001). Welfare reform, family hardship, and women of color. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 577, 38-48.
15.
CarlenP. (1988). Women, crime and poverty. Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press.
16.
CauceA. M.HiragaY.GravesD.GonzalesN.Ryan-FinnK.GroveK. (1996). African American mothers and their adolescent daughters: Closeness, conflict, and control. In Ross LeadbeaterB. J.WayN. (Eds.), Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities (pp. 100-116). New York: New York University Press.
17.
CharmazK. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
18.
ClarkL. M. (2007). Landlord attitudes toward renting to released offenders. Federal Probation, 71, 20-30.
19.
CollinsP. H. (1994). Shifting the center: Race, class, and feminist theorizing about motherhood. In GlennE. N.ChangG.ForceyL. R. (Eds.), Mothering: Ideology, experience, and agency (pp. 45-65). New York, NY: Routledge.
20.
CooperB. (2010). Ain’t I a lady? Race women, Michelle Obama, and the ever-expanding democratic imagination. MELUS, 35(4), 39-57.
CortinaL. M.BerdahlJ. L. (2008). Sexual harassment in organizations: A decade of research in review. In BarlingJ.CooperC. L. (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of organizational behavior (Vol. 1, pp. 469-497). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
23.
CrenshawK. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 140, 139-167.
24.
CrenshawK. (1993). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241-1299.
25.
CrenshawK. (2012). From private violence to mass incarceration: Thinking intersectionally about women, race, and social control. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1418-1472.
FerraroK. J.MoeA. M. (2003). Mothering, crime and incarceration. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 32, 9-40.
34.
FlippenC. A. (2001). Residential segregation and minority home ownership. Social Science Research, 30, 337-362.
35.
FoucaultM. (1977). Discipline & punish: The birth of the prison. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
36.
Garcia-HallettJ. (2016). Understanding the lives of mothers after incarceration: Moving beyond socially constructed definitions of motherhood. Sociology Compass, 10(1), 3-11.
37.
Garcia-HallettJ. (2017). The navigation of motherhood for African American, West Indian, and Hispanic women in reentry (Doctoral dissertation). Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.
38.
Garcia-HallettJ. (2019). Maternal identities and narratives of motherhood: A qualitative exploration of women’s pathways into and out of offending. Feminist Criminology, 14, 214-240. doi:10.1177/1557085118769741
39.
Garcia-HallettJ.TorresT.IrazábalC.LikeT. (2019). Latinas in the Kansas City metro area: Policing and criminalization in ethnic enclaves. Advance online publication.
40.
GarlandB.WodahlE.SchuhmannR. (2013). Value conflict and public opinion toward prisoner reentry initiatives. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 24, 27-48.
41.
GiguereR.DundesL. (2002). Help wanted: A survey of employer concerns about hiring ex-convicts. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 13, 396-408.
42.
GilmanS. L. (1985). Black bodies, White bodies: Toward an iconography of female sexuality in late nineteenth-century art, medicine, and literature. Critical Inquiry, 12, 204-242.
43.
GraffamJ.ShinkfieldA. J.HardcastleL. (2008). The perceived employability of ex-prisoners and offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 52, 673-685.
44.
GurusamiS. (2019). Motherwork under the state: The maternal labor of formerly incarcerated Black women. Social Problems, 66, 128-143. doi:10.1093/socpro/spx045
45.
HancockA. (2004). The politics of disgust: The public identity of the welfare queen. New York: New York University Press.
46.
HaneyL. A. (2010). Offending women: Power, punishment, and the regulation of desire. Berkeley: University of California Press.
47.
ImmerwahrJ.JohnsonJ. (2002). The revolving door: Exploring public attitudes toward prisoner reentry. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
48.
JeffersonB. J. (2018). Policing, data, and power-geometry: Intersections of crime analytics and race during urban restructuring. Urban Geography, 39, 1247-1264. doi:10.1080/02723638.2018.1446587
49.
John Jay College, & The Fortune Society. (2009). In our backyard: Overcoming community resistance to reentry housing (a NIMBY toolkit). New York, NY: Author.
50.
JonesT.NorwoodK. J. (2016). Aggressive encounters & White fragility: Deconstructing the trope of the angry Black woman. Iowa Law Review, 102, 2017-2069.
51.
KentM. M. (2007). Immigration and America’s Black population. Population Bulletin, 62(4), 1-20.
52.
LipsitzG. (2011). In an avalanche every snowflake pleads not guilty: The collateral consequences of mass incarceration and impediments to women’s fair housing rights. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1746-1809.
53.
LubianoW. (1992). Black ladies, welfare queens, and state minstrels: Ideological war by narrative means. In MorrisonT. (Ed.), Race-ing justice, en-gendering power (pp. 323-363). New York, NY: Pantheon Books.
54.
MasseyD. S.CondranG. A.DentonN. A. (1987). The effect of residential segregation on Black social and economic well-being. Social Forces, 66, 29-56.
55.
McCorkelJ. A. (2013). Breaking women: Gender, race, and the new politics of imprisonment. New York: New York University Press.
56.
MinkG. (1999). Whose welfare?Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
57.
MoodyM. (2012). From jezebel to ho: An analysis of creative and imaginative shared representations of African-American women. Journal of Research on Women and Gender, 4, 74-94.
58.
NerneyM.DavisA.GonzalezI.Abdul-RashidT.PalermoA.KusickM.CanalesE. (2011). Coming home and no place to live: Understanding perceptions among public housing residents about the reintegration of formerly incarcerated individuals to these locations (Policy Work Group Report #2). New York, NY: Policy Work Group, Harlem Community & Academic Partnership.
59.
OcenP. A. (2012). The new racially restrictive covenant: Race, welfare, and the policing of Black women in subsidized housing. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1540-1582.
60.
O’ReillyA. (2014). Mothers, mothering and motherhood across cultural differences: A reader. Bradford, Ontario, Canada: Demeter Press.
61.
OrtizN. R. (2014). The gendering of criminal stigma: An experiment testing the effects of race/ethnicity and incarceration on women’s entry-level job prospects (Doctoral dissertation). Arizona State University, Tempe.
62.
PalmerR.GasmanM. (2008). “It takes a village to raise a child”: The role of social capital in promoting academic success for African American men at a Black college. Journal of College Student Development, 49, 52-70.
63.
PotterH. (2008). Battle cries: Black women and intimate partner abuse. New York: New York University Press.
64.
PotterH. (2013). Intersectional criminology: Interrogating identity and power in criminological research and theory. Critical Criminology, 21, 305-318.
65.
ReimanJ. H.LeightonP. (2017). The rich get richer and the poor get prison: Ideology, class, and criminal justice (11th ed.). New York: Routledge.
66.
ReskinB. (1993). Sex segregation in the workplace. Annual Review of Sociology, 19, 241-270.
67.
RichieB. (2012). Arrested justice: Black women, violence, and America’s prison nation. New York: New York University Press.
68.
RitchieA. J. (2017). Invisible no more: Police violence against Black women and women of color. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
69.
RobertsD. E. (1993). Racism and patriarchy in the meaning of motherhood. Journal of Gender & the Law, 1(1), 1-38.
70.
RobertsD. E. (2012). Prison, foster care, and the systematic punishment of Black mothers. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1474-1500.
71.
RoscignoV. J.Bobbitt-ZeherD. (2007). Sex discrimination in employment. In RoscignoV. J. (Ed.), The face of discrimination (pp. 57-72). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
72.
RoscignoV. J.KarafinD. L.TesterG. (2009). The complexities and processes of racial housing discrimination. Social Problems, 56, 49-69.
73.
SchwartzJ.SteffensmeierD. (2017). Gendered opportunities and risk preferences for offending across the life course. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 3, 126-150.
74.
ShapiroT. M. (2004). The hidden cost of being African American: How wealth perpetuates inequality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
75.
SharmaS. (2003). Beyond driving while black and flying while brown: Using intersectionality to uncover the gendered aspects of racial profiling. Columbia Journal of Gender & Law, 12, 275-309.
76.
SuttonC. R. (1987). The Caribbeanization of New York City and the emergence of a transnational socio-cultural system. In SuttonC. R.ChaneyE. M. (Eds.), Caribbean life in New York City: Sociocultural dimensions (pp. 15-30). New York: Center for Migration Studies of New York.
77.
UpdegroveA. H.CooperM. N.OrrickE. A.PiqueroA. R. (2018). Red states and Black lives: Applying the racial threat hypothesis to the Black lives matter movement. Justice Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1516797
78.
WeselyJ. K.MillerJ. M. (2018). Justice system bias perceptions of the dually marginalized: Observations from a sample of women ex-offenders. Victims & Offenders, 13, 451-470.
79.
WhiteD. G. (1999). Aren’t I a woman? Female slaves in the plantation south. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
