In the last decade, there has been a renewed interdisciplinary interest in the study of existential loneliness (EL) or existential isolation (EI). However, to date, there is still no consensus in the literature on what exactly EL/EI is and how should be measured, resulting in a wide variety of definitions and operationalizations of the experience. Therefore, this scoping review provides an overview of the available terminology, definitions, and operationalizations of EL/EI. As part of the review corpus, a total of 121 reports out of 12 databases were included. In the text, first, an examination of the terms and conceptualizations commonly used to discuss EL/EI is provided. Second, key components of the available definitions in the literature are listed. Third, most common operationalizations of EL/EI are described. Taking this into account, this scoping review sheds light on how the variety of conceptualizations of EL/EI leads to significant differences in the operationalization of the experience, fostering the development of academic niches and the fragmentation of EL/EI scientific knowledge. Thus, this review is an attempt to map commonalities in the EL/EI literature that may enable the reader to understand what exactly it means to explore the existential dimension of loneliness.
AdamsG. R.MarshallS. K. (1996). A developmental social psychology of identity: Understanding the person-in-context. Journal of Adolescence, 19(5), 429–442.
2.
AlbinssonL.StrangP. (2003). Existential concerns of families of late-stage dementia patients: Questions of freedom, choices, isolation, death, and meaning. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 6(2), 225–235.
3.
AnderssonL. (1986). A model of estrangement—Including a theoretical understanding of loneliness. Psychological Reports, 58(3), 683–695. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1986.58.3.683
4.
AromatarisE.MunnZ. (Eds.). (2020). JBI manual for evidence synthesis. JBI.
5.
AvieliH.MushkinP.Araten-BergmanT.Band-WintersteinT. (2016). Aging with schizophrenia: A lifelong experience of multidimensional losses and suffering. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 30(2), 230–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2015.11.005
BolmsjöI.TenglandP. A.RämgårdM. (2019). Existential loneliness: An attempt at an analysis of the concept and the phenomenon. Nursing Ethics, 26(5), 1310–1325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733017748480
8.
BoothR. (1997). Existential loneliness: The other side of the void. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 16(1), 23–32.
BrewerM. B.GardnerW. (1996). Who is this “We”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(1), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.83
11.
BringmannL. F.ElmerT.EronenM. I. (2022). Back to basics: The importance of conceptual clarification in psychological science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(4), 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221096485
12.
CacioppoS.GrippoA. J.LondonS.GoossensL.CacioppoJ. T. (2015). Loneliness: Clinical import and interventions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 238–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615570616
13.
CarrS.FangC. (2023). A gradual separation from the world: A qualitative exploration of existential loneliness in old age. Ageing & Society, 43(6), 1436–1456. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X21001252
CautheryB. (2015). At the site of wilderness: Meredith Monk’s facing north (1990). TOPIA: Canadian Journal of Cultural Studies, 32, 93–110.
16.
CharpentierM.KirouacL. (2022). Experiences of loneliness among older people living alone. A qualitative study in Quebec (Canada). Ageing & Society, 42(12), 2832–2853. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X21000349
CollinsW. E. (1989). A sermon from hell: Toward a theology of loneliness. Journal of Religion and Health, 28(1), 70–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00987504
19.
ConstantinoM. J.SommerR. K.GoodwinB. J.CoyneA. E.PinelE. C. (2019). Existential isolation as a correlate of clinical distress, beliefs about psychotherapy, and experiences with mental health treatment. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 29(4), 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/int0000172
20.
DahlbergK. (2007). The enigmatic phenomenon of loneliness. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 2(4), 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482620701626117
21.
De Jong-GierveldJ.RaadscheldersJ. (1982). Types of loneliness. In PeplauL. A.PerlmanD. (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 105–268). Wiley.
De LangeA. M. (1996). Conrad’s impressionism: The treatment of space and atmosphere in selected works [Doctoral dissertation, Rhode University]. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1002272
24.
DołęgaZ. (2015). Family cohesion and the loneliness of adolescents from temporarily disconnected families due to economic migration. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 46(1), 45–52.
25.
Dor-HaimP.OplatkaI. (2021). Feelings of loneliness among school principals: Experiences, causes and copying strategies. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 20(2), 261–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2019.1668423
26.
EdbergA. K.BolmsjöI. (2019). Exploring existential loneliness among frail older people as a basis for an intervention: Protocol for the development phase of the LONE study. JMIR Research Protocols, 8(8), Article e13607. https://doi.org/10.2196/13607
27.
EkwonyeA. U.GerdesS. (2022). Exploring the effectiveness of virtual compassionate presence sessions in reducing loneliness and isolation among assisted-living older adults: A pilot study. Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging, 34(2), 174–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/15528030.2021.1914803
28.
ErdnerA.MagnussonA.NyströmM.LützenK. (2005). Social and existential alienation experienced by people with long-term mental illness. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 19(4), 373–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2005.00364.x
29.
EttemaE. J.DerksenL. D.van LeeuwenE. (2010). Existential loneliness and end-of-life care: A systematic review. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, 31(2), 141–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11017-010-9141-1
30.
FrancisG. M. (1976). Loneliness: Measuring the abstract. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 13(3), 153–160.
31.
Gökdemir-BulutB. P.BozoÖ. (2018). The psychometric validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the existential loneliness questionnaire. Current Psychology, 37(1), 401–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9534-z
32.
GraneheimU. H.LindgrenB. M.LundmanB. (2017). Methodological challenges in qualitative content analysis: A discussion paper. Nurse Education Today, 56, 29–34.
33.
HawkleyL. C.BrowneM. W.CacioppoJ. T. (2005). How can I connect with thee? Let me count the ways. Psychological Science, 16(10), 798–804.
34.
HawkleyL. C.CacioppoJ. T. (2010). Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 40(2), 218–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8
35.
HelmP. J.GreenbergJ.ParkY. C.PinelE. C. (2019). Feeling alone in your subjectivity: Introducing the state trait existential isolation model (STEIM). Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology, 3(3), 146–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts5.41
36.
HelmP. J.JimenezT.BultmannM.LifshinU.GreenbergJ.ArndtJ. (2020). Existential isolation, loneliness, and attachment in young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 159, Article 109890. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109890
37.
IglesiasA. (2004). Hypnosis and existential psychotherapy with end-stage terminally ill patients. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 46(3), 201–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/00029157.2004.10403600
38.
JanssonA. H.KaristoA.PitkäläK. H. (2022). Listening to the voice of older people: Dimensions of loneliness in long-term care facilities. Ageing & Society, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X21001975
39.
KazanjianC.ChoiS. J. (2013). Encountering the displaced child: Applying Clark Moustakas’ concept of existential loneliness to displaced youth. Journal of Global Responsibility, 4(2), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1108/JGR-01-2013-0002
40.
KjelsvikM.SekseR. J. T.MoiA. L.AasenE. M.CheslaC. A.GjengedalE. (2018). Women’s experiences when unsure about whether or not to have an abortion in the first trimester. Health Care for Women International, 39(7), 784–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2018.1465945
41.
LarssonH.EdbergA. K.BolmsjöI.RämgårdM. (2019). Contrasts in older persons’ experiences and significant others’ perceptions of existential loneliness. Nursing Ethics, 26(6), 1623–1637. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733018774828
42.
LarssonH.RämgårdM.BolmsjöI. (2017). Older persons’ existential loneliness, as interpreted by their significant others—An interview study. BMC Geriatr, 17, Article 138. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-017-0533-1
43.
LarssonH.RämgårdM.KumlienC.BlomqvistK. (2020). Spouses’ existential loneliness when caring for a frail partner late in life-a hermeneutical approach. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 15(1), Article 1734166. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2020.1734166
44.
Leigh-HuntN.BagguleyD.BashK.TurnerV.TurnbullS.ValtortaN.CaanW. (2017). An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness. Public Health, 152, 157–171.
45.
MaesM.QualterP.VanhalstJ.Van den NoortgateW.GoossensL. (2019). Gender differences in loneliness across the lifespan: A meta–analysis. European Journal of Personality, 33(6), 642–654. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2220
46.
MayersA. M.KhooS. T.SvartbergM. (2002). The existential loneliness questionnaire: Background, development, and preliminary findings. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(9), 1183–1193. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10038
47.
MayersA. M.NaplesN. A.NilsenR. D. (2005). Existential issues and coping: A qualitative study of low-income women with HIV. Psychology & Health, 20(1), 93–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440410001722949
48.
Mc GrawJ. G. (1995). Loneliness, its nature and forms: An existential perspective. Man and World, 28, 43–64.
49.
McQuillanP. (2010). Loneliness versus delight in the eighteenth-century aisling. Eighteenth-Century Ireland/Iris an Dá Chultúr, 25, 11–32.
50.
MijuskovicB. L. (2012). Loneliness in philosophy, psychology, and literature. iUniverse.
51.
MijuskovicB. L. (2021). Metaphysical dualism, subjective idealism, and existential loneliness: Matter and mind. Routledge.
52.
MoustakasC. E. (1976). Loneliness. Prentice-Hall.
53.
OdhI.LöfvingM.KlaesonK. (2016). Existential challenges in young people living with a cancer diagnosis. European Journal of Oncology Nursing, 24, 54–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejon.2016.08.005
54.
OlofssonJ.RämgårdM.Sjögren-ForssK.BramhagenA. C. (2021). Older migrants’ experience of existential loneliness. Nursing Ethics, 28(7–8), 1183–1193. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733021994167
55.
OzanneA. O.GraneheimU. H.StrangS. (2013). Finding meaning despite anxiety over life and death in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22(15–16), 2141–2149. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.12071
56.
ParkC.MajeedA.GillH.TamuraJ.HoR. C.MansurR. B.. . . McIntyreR. S. (2020). The effect of loneliness on distinct health outcomes: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 294, Article 113514.
PinelE. C.HelmP. J.YawgerG. C.LongA. E.ScharnetzkiL. (2022). Feeling out of (existential) place: Existential isolation and nonnormative group membership. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 25(4), 990–1010. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430221999084
59.
PinelE. C.LongA. E.LandauM. J.AlexanderK.PyszczynskiT. (2006). Seeing I to I: A pathway to interpersonal connectedness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.243
60.
PinelE. C.LongA. E.MurdochE. Q.HelmP. (2017). A prisoner of one’s own mind: Identifying and understanding existential isolation. Personality and Individual Differences, 105, 54–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.024
61.
PopayJ.RobertsH.SowdenA.PetticrewM.AraiL.RodgersM.. . . DuffyS. (2006). Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews: A product from the ESRC methods programme (Version 1, b92). ESRC Methods Programme.
62.
SadlerW. A.JohnsonT. B. (1980). From loneliness to anomia. In HartogJ.AudyJ. R.CohenY. A. (Eds.), The anatomy of loneliness (pp. 34–64). International University Press.
63.
SaricaliM.GulerD. (2022). The mediating role of psychological need frustration on the relationship between frustration intolerance and existential loneliness. Current Psychology, 41, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02866-w
64.
SekseR. J. T.RaaheimM.BlaakaG.GjengedalE. (2010). Life beyond cancer: Women’s experiences 5 years after treatment for gynaecological cancer. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 24(4), 799–807. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2010.00778.x
65.
SjöbergM.BeckI.RasmussenB.EdbergA. (2017, July23–27), The meaning of existential loneliness as narrated by frail older people [Conference abstract]. 2017 IAGG World Congress of Gerontology and Geriatrics, San Francisco, United States.
66.
SjöbergM.BeckI.RasmussenB. H.EdbergA. K. (2018). Being disconnected from life: Meanings of existential loneliness as narrated by frail older people. Aging & Mental Health, 22(10), 1357–1364. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2017.1348481
67.
SongY. K. (2020). “This isn’t being a doctor.” —Qualitative inquiry into the existential dimensions of medical student burnout. Medical Science Educator, 30(3), 1095–1105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-020-01020-0
68.
SpithovenA. W. M.CacioppoS.GoossensL.CacioppoJ. T. (2019). Genetic contributions to loneliness and their relevance to the evolutionary theory of loneliness. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(3), 376–396. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618812684
69.
StaatsK.GrovE. K.HusebøB. S.TranvågO. (2021). Dignity of older home-dwelling women nearing end-of-life: Informal caregivers’ perception. Nursing Ethics, 28(3), 444–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733020956372
70.
StegerM. F.FrazierP.OishiS.KalerM. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80
71.
StrangS.StrangP.TernestedtB. M. (2001). Existential support in brain tumour patients and their spouses. Supportive Care in Cancer, 9(8), 625–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s005200100258
72.
StrathernM. (1988). The gender of the gift: Problems with women and problems with society in Melanesia (No. 6). University of California Press.
73.
SundströmM.BlomqvistK.EdbergA. K. (2021). Being a volunteer encountering older people’s loneliness and existential loneliness: Alleviating loneliness for others and oneself. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 35(2), 538–547. https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12869
74.
SundströmM.BlomqvistK.EdbergA. K.RämgårdM. (2019). The context of care matters: Older people’s existential loneliness from the perspective of healthcare professionals—A multiple case study. International Journal of Older People Nursing, 14(3), Article e12234. https://doi.org/10.1111/opn.12234
75.
SundströmM.EdbergA. K.RämgårdM.BlomqvistK. (2017). Health care staff’s perception of existential loneliness among older people. Innovation in Aging, 1(Suppl. 1), 1107–1108. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igx004.4057
76.
SundströmM.EdbergA. K.RämgårdM.BlomqvistK. (2018). Encountering existential loneliness among older people: Perspectives of health care professionals. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 13(1), Article 1474673. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2018.1474673
77.
TemplerD. I.AwadallaA.Al-FayezG.FrazeeJ.BassmanL.ConnellyH. J.ArikawaH.Abdel-KhalekA. M. (2006). Construction of a death anxiety scale–extended. Omega-Journal of Death and Dying, 53(3), 209–226.
van TilburgT. G. (2021). Social, emotional, and existential loneliness: A test of the multidimensional concept. The Gerontologist, 61(7), e335–e344. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa082
80.
van TilburgT. G. (2022). Emotional, social, and existential loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: Prevalence and risk factors among Dutch older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 77(7), e179–e184. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab101
81.
WarrenN.MelroseD. M.BrookerJ. E.BurneyS. (2018). Psychosocial distress in women diagnosed with gynecological cancer. Journal of Health Psychology, 23(7), 893–904. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316640061
82.
WeissR. S. (Ed.). (1973). Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation. MIT Press.
83.
YalomI. D. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. Basic Books.
84.
ZackM. V. (1991). The experience of loneliness in adult, hospitalized, dying persons [Doctoral dissertation, Health Science, Case Western Reserve University]. ProQuest.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
