Abstract
This study investigated community perceptions of the impact of climate change on child nutrition in rural Chilonga, Chiredzi South district. The study used a qualitative case study design and interviewed 40 purposefully selected participants, including community leaders, farmers, government health and agriculture experts, pregnant and lactating women, and caregivers of children under 5. Data were also collected through observations in the field. Findings indicate that the Chilonga community is severely impacted by climate change, resulting in significant agricultural losses, low food production, water scarcity, and consequently, various forms of child malnutrition. Adding to the distress, climate change fosters a breeding ground for vector-borne diseases, compounding the community’s woes. As women shoulder augmented household responsibilities due to climate-induced challenges, their time for childcare practices dwindles.
Introduction
Climate change is exacerbating malnutrition among young children through multiple pathways. According to Tirado, climate change affects food and nutrition security and diminishes ongoing efforts to alleviate hunger and promote nutrition. Tirado further states that undernutrition further diminishes the climate resilience of vulnerable communities and hampers their ability to cope effectively. Despite the expected expansion in the overall range of agriculturally productive regions, alterations in rainfall, temperatures and extreme events are anticipated to decrease food productivity and make production increasingly unstable in many vulnerable regions where agricultural output is low already, such as in sub-Saharan countries (Easterling et al., 2007; Parry et al., 2009). Declines in local production coupled with disruptions brought about by climate hazards are anticipated to drastically reduce the income-generating opportunities and purchasing power for vulnerable communities (Tirado et al., 2013). Furthermore, the reduced agricultural production could lead to increased prices for staple crops by 25% to 150% by 2060 (Parry et al., 2009). Some studies project a more than double increase in food prices in the next 20 years, with climate change attributing half of this increase. These elevated prices of basic food commodities (Lobell et al., 2011; Phiri et al., 2019; Porter et al., 2014; United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2017) are anticipated to result in increased nutrient deficiencies and persistent undernutrition among the most food-insecure population groups (Frank et al., 2017; Springmann et al., 2016). Food insecurity could be further worsened by climate mitigation efforts aligned with land sparing (Frank et al., 2017).
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2018), climate change affects the availability of essential nutrients such as iron and zinc, which are vital for child nutrition. Furthermore, Klemm et al. (2018) and Smith and Myers (2018) cite that elevated levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide minimize the levels of iron, zinc, and protein in cereal, which are crucial for growth, and this contributes to micronutrient deficiencies. The aggregate impacts of climate change are reduced amounts and quality of food accessible to children. This contributes to various forms of malnutrition, including undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, overweight, and obesity (Agostoni et al., 2023). This presents potential risks and challenges to the nutritional well-being of children. In Zimbabwe, climate change has led to a reduction in food availability in rural areas, adversely affecting the nutritional status of children (Makumbe et al., 2019).
Climate change-driven food insecurity and famines hinder infants and children from meeting their nutritional needs and accessing essential primary health care, jeopardizing their health and development (Pérez-Escamilla and Moran, 2023). The IPCC 4th Assessment Report states that if current trends persist, an estimated 200 million to 600 million more people will be hungry by 2080 (Yohe et al., 2007). The availability of calories in the developing world will likely decline in 2050, leading to an extra 24 million children with malnutrition, with almost half of them living in sub-Saharan Africa (Nelson, 2009; Parry et al., 2009). In addition, climate change has been projected to result in a proportional rise in moderate stunting of 1% to 29% in 2050 compared with a climate change-free future (Lloyd et al., 2011). Climate change will have a profound impact on severe stunting rates, which are estimated to increase by 23% in central sub-Saharan Africa to 62% in South Asia (Lloyd et al., 2011).
Tirado emphasizes that climate change-related extreme events are negatively impacting institutions responsible for food and nutrition security. This includes physical damage to health infrastructure and straining of social services, safety nets, and other social policies, which in turn multiply the very same socioeconomic vulnerabilities that make communities prone to climate change. As the climate-related extreme events such as heat waves, droughts, storms, heavy precipitation, and floods become more frequent (Meehl et al., 2007; Phiri et al., 2014), and disasters more likely, (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), 2008), the food and nutrition security of at risk communities will suffer significant setbacks (Cohen et al., 2008; Easterling et al., 2007; Tirado et al., 2010).
Climate change, especially rainfall and temperature fluctuations, presents a significant barrier to enhancing child nutrition, especially in regions highly susceptible to climatic fluctuations. Research consistently proves that exposure to extreme weather conditions during pregnancy and early childhood negatively impacts children’s nutritional outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA; Helldén et al., 2021; Phalkey et al., 2015). For instance, high temperatures during fetal development greatly increase the likelihood of undernutrition, including severe stunting (Amegbor et al., 2020; Baker and Anttila-Hughes, 2020; Hyland and Russ, 2019; Randell et al., 2020). Likewise, exposure to drought in early childhood has been linked with long-term negative socioeconomic impacts due to compromised nutritional status during critical growth periods, as demonstrated by studies conducted across 19 SSA countries (Hyland and Russ, 2019) and in Malawi (Abiona, 2017). Hoddinott and Kinsey (2001) observed that young children exposed to the 1994–1995 drought in Zimbabwe experienced stunted growth (low height-for-age). Reductions in precipitation and drought indicators like the standardized precipitation-evapotranspiration index have been linked with low child height in several other contexts, including Mali (Jankowska et al., 2012), Ethiopia (Randell et al., 2020), Kenya (Grace et al., 2012), across various African countries (Davenport et al., 2017), and globally in the developing countries (Cooper et al., 2019). Similarly, studies from Bangladesh indicate that in the following years after floods, stunting and wasting rates would have increased among preschool children due to food shortages, inadequate care, and greater exposure to contaminants (Del Ninno et al., 2003).
The increasing frequency of infectious disease outbreaks associated with climate change disproportionately affects child health (Blakstad and Smith, 2020; Phalkey et al., 2015). Climate-induced environmental changes are enhancing the transmission capacity of diverse water, air, food, and vector-borne pathogens, which further aggravate the burden of malnutrition, especially among infants and children (Fanzo and Downs, 2021). Furthermore, heat exposure may impair gut permeability due to lower oxygen concentrations in the lumen, hindering the body’s ability to absorb the already scarce micronutrients (Lian et al., 2020). This well-documented reciprocal relationship between malnutrition and infection remains a critical issue (Blakstad and Smith, 2020).
Despite these challenges, the unequal impacts of climate change on the health and food security of infants and children in low-income settings are not getting adequate attention in the United Nations and government agendas (Blakstad and Smith, 2020; CARE International, 2020; Pope et al., 2021). Multifaceted impacts of climate change on child nutrition demand immediate attention from the global health community. Recent research highlights the importance of recognizing the potential risks and challenges and underscores the need for coordinated and sustained efforts to address this pressing issue.
Aim of the study
This qualitative study aims to investigate community perceptions of the impact of climate change on child nutrition in rural Chilonga, Chiredzi district. The findings may help determine potential strategies to alleviate this impact and enhance resilience.
Objectives
The study objectives include the following:
To identify the key climate change variables impacting child nutrition in Chilonga.
To identify the pathways through which climate change impacts child nutrition in Chilonga.
To assess the current state of child nutrition in Chilonga.
To explore the community perceptions toward climate change and its impact on child nutrition in Chilonga.
To identify the coping mechanisms and strategies used by households to mitigate the impact of climate change on child nutrition in Chilonga.
To recommend evidence-based interventions to mitigate the perceived impacts of climate change on child nutrition in Chilonga.
Research questions
The following research questions guided the study.
What is the relationship between climate change and child nutrition?
What are the key drivers of climate change that impact child nutrition?
What are the available community initiatives fostering food security for child nutrition purposes?
What are the long-term climate change impacts on child nutrition?
What are the climate change-induced challenges and opportunities in the implementation of community initiatives to address malnutrition?
What are the community perceptions on the impacts of climate change on child nutrition?
What are the community coping mechanisms and strategies for dealing with the impact of climate change on nutrition?
What evidence-based interventions are available to reduce the impact of climate change on child nutrition?
Literature review
Climate change has ramifications for human nutrition that go beyond caloric availability, and providing access to nutritious and cheap diets will be a substantial concern by 2050. Extreme events are becoming more frequent and severe, raising the risk of acute food insecurity and malnutrition (Bezner Kerr et al., 2022). Malnutrition has been identified as a substantial health issue connected to climate change, particularly among young children (Agostoni et al., 2023). According to Dangour et al. (2019), climate change is anticipated to have negative consequences on child nutrition, including stunting, wasting, and micronutrient deficiencies. Lancet Commission on Health and Climate Change (2015) asserts that climate change exacerbates different forms of malnutrition, including undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and obesity. Early childhood undernutrition heightens the risk of mortality, morbidity, infections, developmental challenges, and cognitive deficits (Black et al., 2008; Nabarro, 2010). In later life, poor childhood nutrition negatively impacts educational attainment and labor efficiency, thereby hindering socioeconomic development (Hoddinott et al., 2008; Maluccio et al., 2009; Nabarro, 2010).
The body of knowledge in the field of climate change and nutrition is growing, indicating the potential hazards and problems that climate change poses to child nutrition. Tirado et al. (2013) explore the link between climate change and nutrition security. In their paper, Tirado et al. (2013) highlight that climate change significantly impacts food systems, leading to changes in crop yields, food availability, and access to nutritious food with vulnerable populations, especially in low-income nations being most affected. Overall, Tirado et al. (2013) contribute to understanding the relationship between climate change and nutrition security and provide important insights for policymakers and practitioners. A study by Lake et al. (2012) focuses on the health impacts of climate change on food security in developed countries. The study found that climate change poses a significant threat to food security. The study further highlights that changes in weather patterns and agricultural productivity can lead to food shortages and impact food quality, resulting in malnutrition, obesity, and chronic diseases among vulnerable populations, including children. Lake et al. (2012) in their study emphasize the need for comprehensive policies required to enhance public health despite the ongoing climate change as well as food security challenges.
Another research by Macdiarmid and Whybrow (2019) looks at nutrition from a climate change perspective and considers the potential consequences of any climate action on food and nutrition security. In their paper, Macdiarmid and Whybrow (2019) discuss these issues from an interdisciplinary perspective, shedding more light on the subject. Swinburn et al. (2019) in the Lancet Commission report also highlight the interconnectedness of obesity, undernutrition, and climate change, forming a syndemic. The report identifies common drivers such as the global food system and urbanization that exacerbate these issues and need to be addressed. Swinburn et al. (2019) state that vulnerable populations are disproportionately affected, necessitating equity-focused interventions. Swinburn et al. (2019) conclude that a transformative approach integrating policies and actions across sectors is necessary, adopting a planetary health perspective. The report also provides valuable insights and recommendations for policymakers and practitioners to develop comprehensive strategies promoting health, equity, and sustainability. Another study by Fanzo and Downs (2021) explores the relationship between climate change and nutrition-associated diseases. They highlight how climate change affects food systems, leading to disruptions in food availability, accessibility, and quality. This can contribute to the rise of nutrition-related diseases such as malnutrition and obesity among vulnerable populations like young children.
Mahapatra et al. investigate the relationship between climate change, agricultural vulnerability, and child malnutrition in India. Mahapatra et al. found a significant association between climate change-induced agricultural vulnerability and child malnutrition. In their study, Mahapatra et al. state that changes in crop production, food availability, and household income contribute to reduced dietary diversity and inadequate nutrition for children. They also highlight how context-specific factors such as socioeconomic status and access to healthcare mediate this relationship. Their study emphasizes the need for targeted interventions and policy measures, including climate-resilient agriculture, improved access to nutritious foods, social safety nets, and healthcare strengthening to ensure adequate nutrition for children.
A narrative review on the impact of climate change on food systems, diet quality, nutrition, and health outcomes were conducted by Owino et al. (2022) and they provided literature on how the various consequences of climate change undermine the stability of global food systems, decreasing food security and diet quality, and exposing vulnerable populations to multiple forms of malnutrition. In addition, a modeling study carried out by Springmann et al. (2016), predicts that by 2050 there will be a 3.2% reduction in food availability, which consists mainly of reductions in fruit and vegetables, and these impacts will predominantly be seen in Africa, Southeast Asia, and Western Pacific Regions (Springmann et al., 2016). According to Springmann et al. (2016), this will affect the nutritional status of the most vulnerable groups, including young children.
These studies and papers demonstrate the significant impact of climate change on child nutrition. They emphasize the urgent need for climate-resilient interventions, including climate-smart agriculture, nutrition education, and social protection initiatives for mitigating the climate change impacts and improving child nutrition outcomes. However, several gaps exist in the evidence on the relationship between climate change and nutrition. Owino et al. (2022) posit that there is a lack of evidence regarding the impact of climate change on human nutrition and health indicators. Phalkey et al. (2015) further posit that systematic evidence quantifying the impacts of climate change on undernutrition (particularly stunting) in subsistence farmers in low- and middle-income countries is currently limited. In their systematic review, Phalkey et al. (2015) found few studies that had used primary data to investigate the proportion of stunting that can be attributed to climate/weather variability
Another gap includes limited long-term studies on climate impacts on nutrition. Numerous studies on climate change and child nutrition are cross-sectional or short-term in nature, failing to capture the full magnitude of the impact (Bhutta et al., 2013). To understand the long-term impacts, more study is needed, particularly among disadvantaged populations in low-income countries (Goudet et al., 2018; Hirvonen et al., 2020). Another gap is in regional and population-specific impacts. While worldwide consequences have been researched, there has been little research into how climate change affects individual regions and communities differently. To understand these variances, more research is needed (Goudet et al., 2018; Hirvonen et al., 2020). There is also a lack of interdisciplinary integration. The intricate linkages between climate change and child nutrition necessitate the collaboration of experts from a variety of fields, including nutrition, agriculture, and environmental science. However, there is a research gap that does not fully use the promise of multidisciplinary approaches. There is also the challenge of the incomplete understanding of pathways and according to Sanzo et al. (2020), understanding the complicated pathways through which climate change affects mother and child nutrition is critical, but research in this area is still lacking. There is a scarcity of research on the efficacy of specific adaptation methods in enhancing child nutrition in the context of climate change (Roshan et al., 2020). Finally there is a gap in studies focusing on lived experiences and community perceptions on the impacts of climate change on child nutrition and this study seeks to fill that gap.
Research site
Chilonga is in Chiredzi District, Masvingo Province in Zimbabwe. The area is situated in the Southeast Lowveld area of Zimbabwe and falls under natural farming region 5, which is known for its semi-arid climate characterized by hot and dry conditions throughout the year (Chikodzi and Mutowo, 2012; Mugandani et al., 2012; Unganai, 2011). This region experiences low rainfall and high temperatures, making it one of the most agriculturally challenging areas in Zimbabwe due to its harsh climatic conditions (FAO, 2019; GoZ-UNDP/GEF, 2009).
Methodology
In this study, the qualitative method was used in the investigation of community perceptions of the impact the climate change on child nutrition in Chilonga. According to Creswell (2009), qualitative research enables researchers and practitioners to perceive, explain, analyze, and generate novel ideas about the context. Qualitative research has several strengths that contribute to its value in understanding social phenomena (Mohajan, 2018). The use of open-ended questioning allows for the finding of new phenomena and raises additional issues through broad and exploratory inquiry (Creswell, 2014; Yauch and Steudel, 2003). It includes a diverse and representative cross-section of individuals affected by the phenomenon under study, providing a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of its impact (Yauch and Steudel, 2003). Qualitative research offers rich and detailed information about affected populations, allowing researchers to explore the perspectives of both homogeneous and diverse groups within a community (Creswell, 2014). Because qualitative research does not rely on statistics and instead employs a descriptive, narrative style, it can provide new insights and suggest possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes (Queirós et al., 2017; Yauch and Steudel, 2003). It allows participants to open and provides new evidence that may not have been considered previously (Creswell, 2014). This method offers a comprehensive analysis of the detailed processes that affect people’s lives and reveals crucial instances within specific contexts (Mohajan, 2018; Yauch and Steudel, 2003). It also enables cultural analysis, exploring underlying attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions (Creswell, 2014).
Because of the researcher’s close involvement in data collection, qualitative research provides an insider’s view of the area, revealing issues that more positivistic investigations may ignore (Yauch and Steudel, 2003). Creativity and unique explanatory frameworks are encouraged in qualitative research, with the data analyst frequently highly involved in data collecting and holding a strong awareness of its strengths (Creswell, 2014). Participatory approaches in qualitative research empower rather than objectify respondents, and they bring depth and a human viewpoint to social analysis (Yauch and Steudel, 2003).
Sampling
Non-probability sampling, namely purposive sampling, was employed for this investigation. Purposive sampling is the practice of selecting participants based on specified criteria related to the study topic or aims (Kothari, 2011). This allows for the investigation of many views and experiences, resulting in valuable data for analysis. Purposive sampling is also time, effort, and cost-effective because it allows the researcher to quickly find and enroll people (Palinkas et al., 2015). Purposive sampling, on the other hand, has the potential to introduce bias because the researcher’s judgment and criteria may impact participant selection. To overcome any potential bias, the researcher established clear and transparent inclusion criteria and strived for diversity in participant selection to capture a wide range of experiences and perspectives. Age, gender, location, expertise, experience, socioeconomic level, access to healthcare and food, as well as cultural and social contexts, were all characteristics considered by the researcher when selecting participants for the study. This is indicated in Table 1.
Sampling specifications.
Thus, the process of participant identification involved meetings with the authorities at the Chilonga clinic, Agritex ward supervisor, and the village heads, and it was during these meetings that it was assessed whether the given names of participants met the inclusion criteria and were suitable for the study. With regards to approaching the potential participants, phone calls and physical meetings were used, with the researcher introducing himself and the study. Ethical guidelines were adhered to during the study. Informed consent was obtained by providing selected participants with clear and accurate information about the research and assuring them that the data would only be used for advancing climate change policy and academic objectives. Participants were not coerced or pressured, and they were fully informed of their right to withdraw from the study. Given that the sample did not include children or individuals with mental illnesses, the capacity to consent was not an issue. Participants who agreed to participate signed an informed consent statement that outlined the terms of their involvement.
Confidentiality plays a crucial role in research as it helps protect participants’ privacy and prevents unauthorized disclosure of personal information (González-Duarte et al., 2019). In this study, confidentiality was maintained through various measures. Participant identities were replaced with codes to ensure anonymity. Data was securely stored on a password-protected computer, and participants were informed about the potential risks of identification and its consequences.
To ensure participant protection and avoid harm in research, it is crucial to safeguard individuals from intrusion, anguish, physical discomfort, embarrassment, and psychological or other forms of harm (Creswell and Poth, 2018). In this study, the interview instructions were designed to be compassionate, minimizing interrogative and intrusive questioning that could potentially traumatize the respondents. The research also aimed to maintain transparency and integrity, avoiding deception and misconduct throughout the research process and with all participants.
The study utilized qualitative methods and collected data through interviews and observations in the field. Data collection was performed in October 2024 in one ward and covered seven villages. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from 40 purposively selected participants including pregnant and lactating women, caregivers of young children, local farmers, community leaders, and government experts in the health and agriculture sectors. These interviews took place at the Chilonga irrigation scheme, clinic, homesteads, and shops and they were conducted by two of the principal researchers. Interviews were both audio-recorded and transcribed, and the participants were not incentivized. During the observations, photographs were captured to document the observations. This firsthand information enabled the researchers to gain a comprehensive perspective and comprehend the context in which the event was taking place.
Data analysis
Thematic analysis, a qualitative method proposed by Braun and Clarke (2019), was used in the study to find and evaluate patterns or themes in the data. Themes capture important characteristics of the data related to the research question and reflect patterned responses or meanings within the dataset (Braun and Clarke, 2019). Creswell and Poth’s (2018) five-phase process for conducting thematic analysis was followed by the researchers.
During the data management and organization phase, the researchers initially classified the audio files according to the sample category. Then, to develop interview transcripts, all recorded audio files were carefully listened to and transcribed. Finally, the researchers labeled and named the audio files to coincide with the transcripts, making them easier to access and identify.
During the reading and memory phase, the researchers read the transcribed field interviews several times to discover developing ideas. These thoughts were recorded during the interviews, and recurring themes emerged as data collection and analysis progressed. While key passages were marked and emerging ideas were recorded, the primary purpose was to get a thorough comprehension of the interview content.
During the phase of characterizing and categorizing codes into themes, the researchers concentrated on selecting important phrases and words that looked to be relevant. This entailed compiling a list of code descriptions based on specific subjects and phrases, which subsequently helped identify common topics. These common concepts were then grouped to form themes.
During the process of constructing and obtaining interpretations, the researchers analyzed the relationship between themes and noticed differences in opinions among participants from different sample groups. The researchers wanted to see how much agreement or disagreement there was between participant accounts and current literature on pertinent themes. Furthermore, depending on the theoretical framework, the researchers analyzed the significance of participant experiences.
In the final stage, the researchers included their own opinions and data-driven findings. Throughout the data analysis, the researchers used a variety of strategies to mitigate against bias. These included inter-coder reliability, reflexivity, triangulation, and seeking disconfirming evidence. For inter-coder reliability, the analytical process involved multiple coders to reduce individual bias. These coders independently coded the data and shared their results at the end to identify discrepancies. The researchers actively reflected on their assumptions, potential biases, and thoughts throughout the research process. The researchers also used triangulation, where multiple data sources and methods were used to cross-check the findings and strengthen validity, thus ensuring the themes were not shaped by a single perspective. The researchers also actively sought data that contradicted the emerging themes and thus prevented confirmation bias and ensured a more balanced interpretation.
Results and discussion
In this section, an integrated discussion format, in which case literature citations within the results section are justified is used. Table 2 provides an overview of the main themes and sub-themes of the study, and these findings are compared with existing literature, and the theoretical framework is incorporated into the discussion, highlighting areas of alignment and divergence with the study’s findings. The themes are supported by the voices of participants. These themes are listed below:
Community understanding of climate change.
Perceptions on the impact of climate change on child nutrition.
Pathways through which climate change impacts child nutrition.
Status of child nutrition in Chilonga.
Measures taken to mitigate climate change impacts.
Required policies or interventions.
Theme 1: community understanding of climate change
Through interviews with respondents, it was observed that there was a high level of understanding of climate change. The following responses were given: Climate change involves enduring changes in weather patterns that have an impact on our crops and livelihoods. I am aware that human activities such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels are responsible for climate change.
These responses reflect different levels of understanding and interpretations of climate change based on individual knowledge and perspectives. They range from basic recognition of observable changes to comprehensive knowledge of climate change causes and its impacts. However, it is important to note that these definitions align with the definitions provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2014).
Most of the participants also indicated that in their area, they have observed changes in weather patterns, particularly in the distribution of rainfall, temperature fluctuations, more frequent droughts, and unexpected wind motions that lead to cyclones. They also stated that the variability of weather patterns, such as alternating droughts and floods in the same season, more intense and prolonged droughts, and delays in the onset of rainy seasons, severely affected their agricultural livelihoods. One participant stated that There is a decrease in rainfall and a shortening of the rainy seasons. There has been an increase in occurrences of drought. We are now observing marked delays in the onset of rainy seasons.
These findings are consistent with Unganai’s (2011) findings, which emphasize that climate change is altering temperature and rainfall patterns in Zimbabwe.
Theme 2: perceptions on the impact of climate change on child nutrition
Participants noted that changes in precipitation patterns have negatively affected their agricultural production, leading to food insecurity and increased risk of child malnutrition. They highlighted that crop failure resulting from insufficient rainfall leads to low food supply and poor dietary diversity. An agriculture officer stated that Variations in precipitation patterns directly impact agricultural productivity and food production. He further stated that both drought and excessive rainfall harm crops, diminish yields, and disrupt farming operations. This negatively influences the availability and affordability of nutritious food and consequently affects child nutrition in the long run.
A healthcare professional highlighted that Precipitation patterns can have a big impact on child nutrition. Drought and crop failure can arise from insufficient rainfall, resulting in low food supply and poor dietary diversity. This raises the risk of malnutrition amongst young children.
The participants’ observations align with findings by Myers et al. (2017) , which assert that climate change reduces agricultural production, negatively influencing food security and nutrition.
Participants also reported that increased temperatures witnessed over the years have negatively affected agriculture, which is the main livelihood activity in Chilonga. A local agriculture officer stated that Temperature fluctuations can disrupt agricultural practices and food production systems. As a result, food insecurity, increased food costs, and limited availability of nutritious food might occur, compromising the overall nutritional well-being of children.
This highlights the heightened risk of food insecurity and malnutrition that the community is prone to because of climate change. It aligns with the findings of Rurinda et al. (2015), Fanzo et al. (2018) and Agostoni et al. (2023), who have all discussed the impacts of climate change on food and nutrition security.
A health care professional highlighted the issue of food spoilage related to higher temperatures, which affects food safety and quality. The participant noted that AP1: “Extreme heat affects the storage and preservation of food, leading to spoilage and contamination. This can increase the risk of foodborne illnesses, particularly for young children who are more vulnerable to infections and diseases.”
This response is consistent with Cissé (2019) and Molotoks et al. (2021) observations that warmer temperatures promote microbial growth in fresh fruits and vegetables. This increases the risk of numerous ailments, especially among children. Furthermore, FAO et al. (2018) underline the importance of food safety in their definition of food security. Climate change, on the other hand, jeopardizes food safety, leading to food insecurity and an increased risk of malnutrition among society’s most vulnerable members, particularly young children.
Furthermore, participants highlighted that in recent years, they had observed an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and cyclones, which severely destroy crops, livestock, and infrastructure, leading to food and water insecurity. One participant stated that The primary climate change risk in Chilonga is drought. Droughts are expected every three years, with a major drought occurring every ten years. Drought destroys crops and kills animals, wreaking havoc on our lives and aggravating poverty. Finally, our nourishment is jeopardized.
This aligns with the observed patterns in Africa, where seasonal food scarcity and climate-related shocks like droughts or floods contribute to malnutrition, illnesses, and death among vulnerable populations, particularly young children (Godfrey and Tunhuma, 2020).
Theme 3: pathways through which climate change impacts child nutrition
Climate change affects child nutrition through undermining agricultural productivity, as highlighted by participants in the study. Low agricultural output alongside reduced nutrient content in crops negatively affects food availability and nutritional level, increasing the risk of child malnutrition. An agriculture officer remarked that Climate change-related droughts and higher temperatures have reduced crop yields and reduced the availability of nutritious food in our community, affecting dietary intake and meal quality for children, putting them at risk of malnutrition.
This is consistent with the findings of Bezner Kerr et al. (2022), who predict that climate change will increase the dangers of food insecurity and malnutrition.
Participants stressed that climate change harms livelihoods, particularly those relying on agriculture, leading to poverty and food insecurity. Climate change has had a substantial influence on the livelihoods and income of the Chilonga community’s farmers, who are mostly engaged in red sorghum cultivation and livestock rearing. Farmers cited the devastating impacts of climate change on crops and livestock, which affect their income and ability to acquire food for their families. One farmer said Climate change poses significant challenges to farmers. Extreme weather occurrences, such as droughts or floods, can devastate crops and livestock, resulting in lower yields and income. This jeopardizes my family’s nutrition status because I am unable to purchase all their food requirements.
Tirado et al. (2013), Hess (2020), and ZIMSTAT (2013) have also acknowledged the loss of income experienced by communities dependent on agricultural activities due to climate change. Extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and heat waves can have serious implications on people’s food security, health, and nutrition.
The study participants confirmed that climate change has an impact on people’s food consumption by causing an increase in food prices, which in turn makes them less affordable for households. Godfrey and Tunhuma (2020), Lobell et al. (2011), and Popoola et al. (2020) all support the finding that climate change leads to decreased productivity and yields, resulting in higher food prices. One participant stated that Families, particularly those with limited resources, are finding it difficult to provide adequate and nutritious meals to their dependents as food prices rise because of climate change. This can hurt the individuals under their care’s overall health and well-being.
Climate change has also led to reduced access to wild food. Community members indicated that due to frequent and intense droughts, the local Runde river was now prone to drying up, with the size of pools within it also decreasing significantly. This was reported to affect the quantity and quality of the fish. A caregiver expressed their concern regarding the decline in fish supply from the river caused by climate change and stated that As a caregiver, I see the value of fish in providing nutritious meals for those I care for, especially my grandchildren. Changes in the Runde River caused by climate change have affected the supply of fish, making it more difficult to provide a balanced meal for those in my care. This can have a long-term impact on their health and well-being.
In addition, community members indicated a significant decrease in mopane worms, which was attributed to reduced precipitation and prolonged droughts. One lactating woman stated the following: As a lactating woman, I have noticed how climate change affects the availability of mopane worms in Chilonga. These worms are an important source of nutrients for both my growing child and me. With climate change influencing their population, access to this protein-rich food source becomes more difficult, potentially compromising my child’s overall nutrition and development.
Traditionally, mopane worms (amacimbi) thrive during two peak periods, namely November–December and April–May. These worms are valuable to the local community as they provide both income and nutrition. However, due to climate change, the worms now only appear once and are not as abundant as before. This situation has a ripple effect on the community’s income and nutritional well-being. These findings align with the perspectives shared by Agostoni et al. (2023), Ndlovu et al. (2024), Dube and Phiri (2013), and Nyahunda and Tirivangasi (2019), who claim that climate change affects natural ecosystems, reducing the availability of wild food sources. As a result, individuals who are already economically disadvantaged and vulnerable have less access to food, leading to increasing food insecurity and malnutrition, particularly among young children.
Community members reported that extended periods of drought, reduced rainfall, and high temperatures have resulted in a decrease in both the quantity and quality of clean surface water. Wells dug in riverbeds are susceptible to pollution due to competition for use by livestock and wildlife. The presence of polluted water exposes communities to significant health and sanitation issues, such as diarrheal diseases, which, in conjunction with changes in vector-borne disease patterns, can contribute to increased malnutrition and hinder food utilization (Hess, 2020; Levy et al., 2018; Watts et al., 2019). A healthcare professional expressed that Our community’s lack of clean water has a direct impact on the health and nutrition of young children. Without access to safe and sufficient water, it becomes difficult to maintain basic hygiene standards and cook healthy meals, increasing the risk of malnutrition.
Participants stressed that climate change can harm livelihoods, particularly those relying on agriculture, leading to poverty and food insecurity. Climate change has had a substantial influence on the livelihoods and income of the Chilonga community’s farmers, who are mostly engaged in red sorghum cultivation and livestock rearing. One farmer emphasized the loss of income associated with the changing climate, as indicated below: Climate change poses significant challenges to farmers. Extreme weather occurrences, such as droughts or floods, can devastate crops and livestock, resulting in lower yields and income. This jeopardizes my family’s nutrition status because I am unable to purchase all their food requirements.
The research participants emphasized food distribution is impacted by climate change affecting their nutrition. A health professional gave the following response regarding food disruptions because of climate change: I have seen the impact of climate change on food delivery, particularly in flood-prone areas like Chilonga. The damage to the Runde Bridge makes it harder for food to reach populations in need. This causes disturbances in the supply chain, leading to scarcity and possibly malnutrition among vulnerable groups like young children.
In the Chilonga community, transportation challenges across the Runde River have always been present during flood events, forcing residents to take longer and more expensive routes. The floods have previously caused damage to part of the bridge, and the repair process has been prolonged. This situation hampers the delivery of fresh fruits such as bananas, oranges, and avocado pears, which typically come from other districts like Chipinge. The damaged and flooded bridge makes passage difficult, further exacerbating the challenges in distributing these essential food products. These findings support the viewpoint of Cottrell et al. (2019), who contend that the increased frequency and intensity of floods caused by climate change can create considerable disruptions to food supply networks due to infrastructure damage.
Participants also highlighted the changes in disease patterns associated with climate change, such as an increase in vector-borne diseases, which can affect the health and nutrition of young children. A healthcare professional emphasized that climate change has an impact on the transmission of vector-borne diseases. She said, Soaring temperatures, particularly in the summer, can contribute to the transmission of malaria, indirectly affecting the nutritional status of children.
This comment is especially true considering that in Zimbabwe, malaria is already a significant challenge, and climate change exacerbates its transmission, resulting in higher rates of illness and mortality among young children, as emphasized by Chigwada (2009) and Hales et al. (2014). Malaria not only increases the caloric needs of affected populations but also impairs the absorption and utilization of essential nutrients, thereby increasing overall nutritional requirements.
Another aspect that emerged was the issue of increased household responsibilities for women due to climate change. This, in turn, reduces the time available for proper childcare practices, resulting in compromised nutrition for their young children.
Theme 4: status of child nutrition in Chilonga
Findings show that there is a small proportion of young children in the Chilonga community who are malnourished. Health staff indicated that there were currently few children under the age of 5 who were being treated for acute and chronic malnutrition. One health worker stated that As a health facility, we frequently conduct routine nutrition screenings, which include assessing the weight and height of young children to evaluate their nutritional status. Our records indicate that some children are not falling within the expected ranges, but these malnutrition cases are few, though. This, however, is still a worrisome issue for us.
These findings do not align with the literature on child nutrition status in Zimbabwe, especially in a food-insecure district like Chiredzi. According to the Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates (JME, 2023), stunting remains the most common form of malnutrition among children under the age of 5 in Zimbabwe, with nearly one in four children currently stunted in growth due to chronic malnutrition, preventing them from attaining their full potential. Moreover, the ZIMVAC 2024 report acknowledges that Zimbabwe currently has a high stunting prevalence of 27.4% and this prevalence has remained higher among boys 6–59 months than among girls over the years (Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZIMVAC), 2024).
Community members and health staff cited the numerous detrimental impacts of child malnutrition, which they have observed in their community. Stunting emerged as a prevalent phenomenon in the community, with one caregiver expressing that When a child is malnourished at a young age, his or her growth slows; if you look closely, you will notice that they are shorter than their peers.
Participants also pointed out that malnourished children struggle health-wise and frequently visit the hospital for treatment. One community member expressed that From what I have noticed, a malnourished child is constantly in and out of the hospital because they are highly susceptible to a variety of infections. Their recuperation is delayed, and they have a significant likelihood of dying.
These observations align with findings by De Onis and Branca (2016), Black et al. (2013), who indicate that stunting has long-term negative impacts on physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development.
Participants described the observed changes in the variety and quality of meals consumed by mothers and their children. From the responses, there was some concern about the appropriateness of complementary feeding, considering the scarcity of vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables in the local market. Consumption of animal source foods high in protein was particularly difficult. Feeding diverse and nutritious foods to infants as early as 6 months improves their growth and cognitive development, as well as helps in the prevention of childhood overweight, obesity, and noncommunicable diseases (WHO, 2013). An agricultural officer said, When individual gardens thrive, the quality and quantity of fresh and nutritious food increases, resulting in improved public health. However, because of the extreme heat that is causing the gardens to fail, many are turning to dried vegetables, which have a lower nutritional value. Furthermore, because the chicken population is declining and eggs are critical for replenishing the chicken population, only a few homes can afford to provide eggs for their children.
Theme 5: measures taken to mitigate climate change impacts
The study identified several climate change adaptation and coping mechanisms that affected households used when faced with food and nutrition insecurity to reduce their risk of malnutrition. To increase their food security, residents in Chilonga have used adaptive agricultural practices and technology. The “Pfumvudza” conservation agricultural strategy, developed by the Zimbabwean government and executed by AGRITEX, the country’s Agricultural Technical and Extension Services, is one significant approach. This initiative aims to tackle food insecurity, hunger, and poverty in rural areas by focusing on smallholder farmers who are most vulnerable to the consequences of climate change. One participant emphasized the benefits of this agricultural approach, emphasizing its favorable influence on their lives.
The Pfumvudza program’s implementation has significantly improved our household food security. We can enhance land production with this conservation agricultural strategy even under harsh climatic circumstances. Small plots, as well as mulching and efficient fertilizer management, have resulted in enhanced agricultural yields. This implies we have enough food to feed our family for the whole year, with a surplus enough to sell or store for later use. Furthermore, the program has taught us how to diversify our crops, ensuring that we have a range of healthy foods on our tables. Overall, Pfumvudza has strengthened our resistance to climate change while also providing a long-term answer to our food security issues.
Other climate-smart agricultural practices being implemented are the growing of drought-tolerant crop varieties like red sorghum varieties. The red sorghum has the added advantage that it is not prone to attack by the quelea birds, which are notorious for ravaging cereal crops. She said, Growing red sorghum has two key benefits. Firstly, it is drought tolerant, allowing cultivation even in dry conditions, ensuring a good harvest. This is critical in water-stressed areas like ours. Secondly, red sorghum is not prone to attack by quelea birds, safeguarding the investment and guaranteeing larger yields without the risk of bird damage. Choosing red sorghum mitigates the risks of drought and bird damage, resulting in a more reliable and successful harvest.
Participants highlighted that they have broadened their livelihood strategies to address the perceived climate change impacts on their nutrition. This involved exploring alternate value chains such as growing paprika and sesame, rearing Boschveld and Sasso chickens, selling non-timber forest products (NTFPs), and participating in village savings and lending clubs. The following remarks highlight the different income sources explored: As a farmer, I am always looking for new value chains to boost my household income. Growing paprika has proven to be a successful method that I have applied. In addition, I have begun raising Boschveld and Sasso chickens, which are noted for producing high-quality meat and eggs. This diversification enables me to enter the poultry sector and meet a variety of consumer wants.
Participants also stated that they are involved in some of the community-based projects and support systems aimed at tackling climate change-related issues. Village savings and lending groups are examples of this. One member said, Being a part of a village saving and lending groups offers a supportive environment in which we can share our experiences, ideas, and market prospects. This helps in many facets of our lives including farming activities, the financial and nutritional well-being of my family.
Participants indicated that when faced with food insecurity, they make changes to their meal frequencies, demonstrating that their eating habits have been influenced by both direct climate change impacts and as a coping technique. Individuals would opt to restrict the number of meals consumed to battle food scarcity. Respondents reported a drop in daily meal frequency because of food shortages caused by climate change. One participant stated that To cope with the impacts of climate change on food availability, I have had to reduce the number of meals I eat each day. It is difficult, but it is a tactic I employ to extend our limited resources. When I can only afford one meal a day, I attempt to make it nutritious and packed. It is not ideal, but it is a means for me to live and provide for my family during these terrible times.
Participants also reported greater reliance on external support. This includes depending on food or monetary aid from UN agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and government support through the Department of Social Welfare. Participants indicated a growing reliance on these external sources for support during times of climate change-induced difficulty. Some participants stated the following: The Department of Social Welfare has provided grain maize for home consumption to the less fortunate in our community, which we appreciate. NGOs have been critical in providing us with food aid and financial support during times of crisis, assisting us in covering vital costs such as food to satisfy our nutritional needs.
The research participants also indicated remittances are a crucial coping technique they used to obtain financial assistance to acquire food for their family in the face of climate change-induced food insecurity. Within the community, almost every family has an individual working in South Africa who sends money via “Mukuru,” a mobile money transfer method, or through deliverymen known as “Malaicha.” Two participants highlighted the following: Remittances are essential in ensuring that we have enough food on the table. It is our family’s lifeline that keeps us fed and nurtured.
The climate change mitigation measures in the Chilonga community are consistent with Van Breda’s (2019) resilience theory, which focuses on how individuals and society adapt, manage, and thrive in the face of adversity. The findings provide insight into people’s resilience and ability to survive in adverse circumstances by employing both internal and external resources to overcome challenges and sustain well-being, as highlighted by Goudet et al. (2018). Communities, according to this view, may successfully solve their difficulties by acknowledging their agency and capacity to act (Van Breda, 2019).
Theme 6: required policies or interventions
This theme highlights the identified interventions to alleviate the perceived community impacts of climate change on child nutrition. The first strategy identified by the participants was the promotion of climate-smart nutrition-sensitive agriculture that recognizes the value of neglected and underused species, the production and consumption of bio-fortified food crops. An agricultural officer stated the following: As an agricultural officer, I am concerned about promoting climate-smart, nutrition-sensitive agriculture. Neglected and underutilized species have enormous potential for supplying nutritious food alternatives, and we must promote awareness of their importance. Furthermore, the production and consumption of bio-fortified food crops might play an important role in combating malnutrition. We can develop a sustainable and resilient food system that serves both people and the environment by incorporating these methods into our farming operations.
Another recommendation was that the government should fully implement and enforce its National Food Fortification strategy to alleviate the high burden of micronutrient deficiencies and align with the country’s objective of being a middle-income society by 2030. This strategy would improve nutrition among vulnerable groups, such as young children. A health care worker highlighted that As a health care provider, I am concerned about micronutrient deficiencies since they often go unreported. The government must oversee the quality and uniformity of fortified food items. Regular monitoring and testing should be carried out to verify the quantities of added nutrients and to resolve any potential quality control concerns.
Based on interviews with research participants, some strategies and focus areas were determined as priority areas for capacity building to improve community resilience and adaptive capacity. The first one focused on the development of an extension dissemination strategy for effectively communicating climate forecast information to farmers and other users. One farmer said, Agricultural extension staff must prioritize the development of a climate communication plan for farmers. In the face of climate change, timely and reliable information is critical for making sound decisions and adaptive agricultural operations.
A local leader emphasized the need to identify and develop enough research and extension capacity in important institutions to allow the participatory development of rural community climate change adaptation plans. The leader said, Seeing you here conducting research in our community makes me want more research and extension capability at major institutions so that when solutions are developed, our needs and perspectives as rural people are properly addressed.
Participants emphasized the importance of addressing the impact of climate change on nutrition through public awareness campaigns and lobbying efforts. This could be achieved through radio campaigns and community outreach initiatives. Radio advertising and community outreach programs might help achieve this. Participants agreed that providing individuals with accurate and timely information enables them to make educated decisions and implement successful solutions for addressing climate change influences on their nutrition. The local radio station “Avuxeni FM” in Chiredzi town was singled out as an exceptional chance to explain climate change to the rural population in their own language, Shangaan. This will improve their comprehension and awareness of the subject and help them adopt strategies to mitigate its impacts on their nutrition. In addition, information could be shared through other social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter (now known as X), the Internet, and WhatsApp. One participant stated the following: To effectively communicate the impacts of climate change on nutrition, we need to use local radio stations like Avuxeni FM, which we now have, as well as social media platforms. This ensures that the message reaches a larger audience and encourages behavioral change.
Participants emphasized the importance of expanding irrigation schemes in the lowveld region of Zimbabwe, particularly in areas prone to drought and food insecurity. They also suggested the establishment of new irrigation schemes in areas that currently lack them. They noted that Zimbabwe has abundant water resources, such as lakes and major rivers that flow consistently throughout the year, making irrigation a viable solution to improve food production and alleviate food insecurity in these regions. One participant specifically said, It is crucial for the country to prioritize the expansion of irrigation systems, considering the abundance of water resources available. Utilizing the water from flowing rivers and lakes, such as Tokwe Mukosi, can greatly contribute to irrigation efforts. By ensuring food security through irrigation, we can also address nutrition security and mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change on nutrition.
Observed conditions in Chilonga community
Different climate-related conditions, food systems, and community adaptation strategies were observed in the Chilonga community. These are discussed with accompanying photographic images of the observations provided below.
Extreme weather events were noted, and, in this instance, it was the drought that had a severe impact on the local environment and food security. It was observed that the flow of water in the river has significantly decreased, with most of the riverbeds being dry. These observations are consistent with the literature, which states that Chilonga is known for its semi-arid climate characterized by hot and dry conditions throughout the year (Chikodzi and Mutowo, 2012; Mugandani et al., 2012; Unganai, 2011). The drying of the Runde River in a community with an irrigation scheme like Chilonga can have significant implications for food production and nutrition. Reduced water availability impedes crop development and reduces agricultural output, potentially resulting in crop failure and food scarcity. As a result, the community’s revenue and livelihoods suffer, making it more difficult to buy healthy food and increasing reliance on more expensive imported sources. Nutritional deficits can occur because of the limited availability of different foods, creating health hazards.
Numerous unprotected wells have been dug along the Runde riverbed, serving as the primary water source for villagers, as many inland water wells are drying up. These wells, as shown in Figure 1, do not have any form of protection. To allow cleaner water to seep in from beneath, residents often must remove some water. The sand present in the wells acts as a natural filtration system, helping to eliminate dirt. It is believed that the consumption of water from these unprotected sources played a role in the cholera outbreak that occurred in Chilonga between November and December 2018, where two confirmed cases of cholera were reported, though both individuals eventually recovered. Waterborne diseases like cholera, diarrhea, and dysentery can impair the body’s ability to absorb nutrients, leading to malnutrition.
A girl fetching water from a well dug in the Runde riverbed.
Observations also indicated that most of the soil in Chilonga fields was cracked, showing that the earth was exposed to intense heat for a lengthy period, resulting in the disappearance of any plant material. It gives an illustration. Animals are left without pastures and must rely on woody acacia trees and mopane leaves for food. This reduces their productivity, and communities are deprived of their products, such as meat and milk, because of their poor conditions. Malnutrition conditions, such as stunting and kwashiorkor, can afflict young children who have limited access to animal source meals.
During the observation of local agricultural practices, including farming techniques, crop diversity, and the use of irrigation systems, it was confirmed that the community had a functional irrigation scheme where a wide range of diverse crops were cultivated. However, it was noted that farmers utilized flood irrigation in the scheme, which is considered inefficient given the scarcity of water resources, as shown in Figure 2.
A mature maize crop in the Chilonga irrigation scheme.
The researcher evaluated crop productivity and identified potential changes in yields resulting from climate-related factors. Observations were that some of the maize crops in the Chilonga community irrigation scheme were infested with the fall armyworm. This transboundary pest is attributed to climate change and its consequences were witnessed in Zimbabwe during the El Nino-induced drought of the 2015/2016 crop season. If left unaddressed, the fall armyworm destroys maize crops and can significantly reduce yields leading to food insecurity and malnutrition among the population. Figure 3 illustrates a maize plant under attack.
A handful of Fall Army Worms collected from the maize plants in the Chilonga Irrigation Scheme.
The researchers observed the perceived impacts of climate change on livestock rearing, fishing activities, and their contribution to child nutrition. It was observed that the condition of cattle was generally poor, as indicated in. Poor animal conditions, including those of cattle, can directly affect nutrition for both the animals themselves and the people who consume their products. Factors such as stress, malnutrition, or disease among livestock can lead to reduced productivity, resulting in lower quality (nutritional value) and availability of animal products like meat, milk, or eggs within households and the local market. This can have consequences for the diversity and availability of protein sources in people’s diets and increase the risk of malnutrition among young children.
Regarding fisheries and fishing activities, it was observed that climate change is causing algal blooms and the drying up of the Runde River and its seasonal pools, leading to a decline in fish populations. This can have significant implications for human nutrition. Communities that rely on fishing as a source of protein may experience reduced access to essential nutrients, resulting in protein deficiencies and limited dietary diversity. Consequently, this can increase the risk of nutrient deficiencies, affect overall health, and contribute to food insecurity. Furthermore, decreased fish populations can lead to a decrease in income, limiting the ability to afford nutritious food and increasing reliance on potentially unbalanced alternative food sources. Figure 4 provides evidence of the fishing activities and how they have been affected by climate change.
An elderly woman fishing in the Runde River using fishing lines.
The figure above clearly illustrates the impact of the drying up pool on her catch. In addition, other community members using nets are catching a larger quantity of fish, including young ones. This suggests that climate change is leading to increased competition for the scarce freshwater natural resources.
The researchers also conducted visits to local markets to assess the availability and accessibility of nutritious food options for young children in Chilonga. At the vegetable market, the most prominent items for sale were tomatoes, onions, green maize, cabbage, and rape. However, fruits such as oranges, avocados, and other vitamin A-rich vegetables like watermelons, butternuts, and carrots were not available. This lack of food variety as shown in Figure 5 indicates a potential issue with dietary diversity within the community. The quality of the produce was generally acceptable, as most vegetables were fresh. However, the limited availability of these items resulted in higher prices.
Women selling fruits and vegetables at the local Chilonga shops.
The researchers also noted the types of food typically consumed by young children in the Chilonga community. This included the methods of preparation, cooking techniques, and portion sizes. It was observed that households prepared their food over an open fire. This involved using firewood or charcoal as a fuel source and placing pots or cooking utensils directly over the fire. More so, food was prepared in healthy environments, but the diet primarily consisted of starchy foods, lacking in animal source foods, and fruits and vegetables rich in vitamin A. Many households had dried vegetables, popularly known as “mukhuswa/mufushwa,” as part of their food supply. Breakfast typically consisted of porridge without peanut butter, and there were no snacks consumed between meals. In addition, some households only began cooking in mid-morning, indicating that leftovers from the previous meal, if any, were consumed in the morning. Portion sizes were somewhat reduced. These dietary patterns and nutrient intake raised concerns regarding the vulnerability of young children to malnutrition.
Communities in Chilonga have been observed implementing different mitigation measures. One of these measures involves diversifying their income sources through brickmaking as depicted in Figure 6. The income generated from this activity is used to purchase household food items. However, this practice is not environmentally friendly as it contributes to deforestation and environmental degradation. The open pits left behind after brickmaking pose risks to humans and livestock. These pits can also collect rainwater, becoming breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
Brick making as an income source in the Chilonga community.
Some households have diversified their activities by engaging in broiler production. These small livestock have a high value and provide a quick turnover, leading to increased household income. However, the intense heats often experienced in the area pose threats to the health and survival of the chickens, which often experience heat-related deaths. Figure 7 shows broiler chickens at a homestead in Chilonga.
Small livestock (Broiler) rearing as an income source.
The researchers observed community initiatives that aim to promote climate-smart agricultural practices, aiming to improve food security and nutrition. One of the initiatives observed was the implementation of the Chilonga irrigation scheme, where farmers cultivate a variety of short-season crops and vegetables. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture was also observed, with farmers growing nutritious crops such as tomatoes, sweet potatoes, okra, groundnuts, and NUA45, which are fortified beans. Some farmers practiced mulching to conserve moisture, and organic fertilizers were used. Due to challenges in maintaining household nutrition gardens, the community turned to intercropping maize with vegetables in their fields. This diverse range of crops not only increased the local food supply but also provided the community with fresh vegetables, thereby contributing to improved nutrition. Figure 8 illustrates this practice.
Intercropping maize with onions and vegetables in the Chilonga irrigation scheme.
Conclusion and recommendations
Participants demonstrated a range of knowledge and understanding of climate change, from basic recognition of observable changes to a comprehensive grasp of the causes and impacts. Participants recognized the linkages between climate change and food security, agricultural practices, and nutritional outcomes for children. Assessing baseline knowledge of climate change is crucial for understanding individuals’ perceptions and responses to questions related to climate change, as well as its impact on child nutrition.
The community showed awareness of climate change and variability in their area, which includes increased temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, frequent extreme weather events, and increased carbon dioxide concentrations. These conditions negatively impact child nutrition by undermining food availability, food nutritional levels, and dietary diversity, increasing the risk of child malnutrition. Addressing these perceived impacts of climate change on child nutrition requires implementing measures to ensure food security, promote sustainable agriculture, improve food safety, and support healthy young child feeding practices.
The study noted the multiple pathways through which climate change affects child malnutrition in Chilonga. Climate change leads to low agricultural productivity, resulting in lower crop yields and limited availability of nutritious foods. This undermines children’s access to adequate, nutritious food to meet their dietary needs, thereby increasing the risk of malnutrition. Climate change-induced shocks reportedly have detrimental impacts on livelihoods and income in Chilonga, particularly because the community livelihoods are reliant on agriculture and natural resources. For instance, the frequent and intense droughts have caused the drying of the Runde River, impacting the availability of fish as a source of protein and income for the community. Furthermore, other food sources such as mopane worms and wild fruits have been hugely affected by increasing temperatures and erratic rainfall.
In addition, climate change results in water scarcity and water contamination, which undermine the availability and quality of clean surface water in the Chilonga community. Furthermore, the changes in disease patterns, including an increase in vector-borne diseases, have implications for child health and nutrition. Participants noted indirect impacts of climate change on child nutrition. For instance, they pointed out that climate change increases household responsibilities for women in the Chilonga community, and this increase in workload reduces the time for proper childcare practices.
While the study found that fewer children in Chilonga are currently being treated for acute and chronic malnutritional, participants expressed concerns on the heightening risk of malnutrition due to intensifying climate change and its long-term consequences on child nutrition. This points to the need for targeted interventions and support to ensure food and nutritional security. Addressing social and cultural barriers that disempower women is crucial for improving household food and nutrition security.
The study found that the Chilonga community has embraced climate-smart agriculture practices, like the “Pfumvudza” strategy, which plays a crucial role in reducing the vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change impacts and improving food security. The Chilonga community has also diversified its livelihood strategies and is exploring alternate value chains to help it mitigate the impacts of climate change on nutrition and improve food security. The findings support the resilience theory, emphasizing the importance of individuals and communities acknowledging their agency and capacity to act in solving problems brought by climate change. However, there is a need for continued support from UN agencies, NGOs, and government programs to address and mitigate the impacts of climate change on child nutrition in Chilonga, as community activities alone may not be sufficient to effectively combat food insecurity and malnutrition.
The study also found out that integrating climate change adaptation and nutrition treatments is essential for minimizing the impact of climate change on child nutrition. Policy recommendations include promoting climate-smart agriculture and implementing the National Food Fortification strategy. Priority actions involve capacity building for climate communication and education, as well as advocacy and awareness campaigns. Utilizing local radio stations and social media platforms can effectively disseminate information and encourage change in behavior.
During field observations in the Chilonga community, drought was identified as an extreme weather event that significantly impacted the local environment and food security in Chilonga. The drying of the Runde River, a vital water source for irrigation, resulted in reduced crop development, agricultural output, and potential crop failure, leading to food scarcity and negative economic consequences for the community. Addressing water scarcity and promoting sustainable irrigation practices are crucial for mitigating the adverse impacts of drought and ensuring food and nutrition security in Chilonga.
The Chilonga community has a functional irrigation scheme, where they grow nutritious crops, which contribute to improved food security and nutrition. Climate-smart agriculture practices should be further promoted and supported to improve food security and nutrition in the community. It was also observed that the farmers were utilizing flood irrigation, which is inefficient given the scarcity of water resources. Addressing water scarcity and promoting sustainable irrigation practices are crucial for mitigating the adverse impacts of drought and ensuring food and nutrition security in Chilonga. Climate-smart agriculture practices, such as the Chilonga irrigation scheme and growing nutritious crops, contribute to improved food security and nutrition. Climate-smart agriculture practices should be further promoted and supported to improve food security and nutrition in the community.
Domestic animals, including cattle, were observed to be in poor conditions, and this can directly affect the nutrition of both the animals and the people who consume their products. In addition to the drying up of the Runde river, algal blooms were also observed, and these have led to a decline in fish populations and reduced access to essential nutrients by the community.
Observations on the adaptive strategies for the community found that brickmaking is a common income-generating activity in Chilonga, but it contributes to deforestation and environmental degradation, posing risks to humans and livestock. Efforts should be made to find alternative income-generating activities that are environmentally friendly and sustainable, reducing the reliance on brickmaking. Broiler production is another income diversification strategy, but the intense heat in the area leads to heat-related deaths of chickens. Strategies to address the impact of high temperatures on broiler production should be developed to prevent heat-related deaths.
Despite the community having a functional irrigation scheme, there was limited availability and accessibility of nutritious food options at the local market. This can lead to a lack of dietary diversity and potential nutrient deficiencies among young children in Chilonga. Within households, it was observed that there was predominant consumption of starchy foods, and the absence of animal source foods and vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables raises concerns about the overall nutritional adequacy of the community’s diet. Strategies that promote dietary diversity, improve access to nutritious foods, and address malnutrition should be prioritized to improve child nutrition in the Chilonga community.
Contribution of the study
This study is crucial in understanding the perceived impact of climate change on child nutrition, examining both indirect and direct impacts such as changes in food availability, quality, income, and healthcare access. Effective strategies can be developed to promote food security and well-being in vulnerable populations. The study provides knowledge of the long-term impacts of climate change on child nutrition, guiding policymakers and researchers in mitigating its impact. Furthermore, this study emphasizes the importance of a multi-sectoral approach through collaboration between the public health, agriculture, and climate change sectors.
Limitations
The limitations of conducting qualitative research on community perceptions of the impacts of climate change on child nutrition in Chilonga, Chiredzi, Zimbabwe include a limited sample size, difficulty in accessing participants, social desirability bias, limited resources, and time constraints. To mitigate potential biases in the study, the researcher will explain the study to participants, commit personal resources and time, obtain permission from the chief and headman for authentic data collection, and make efforts to ensure the participation of all vulnerable members, even if some communities are inaccessible.
Areas for future research
Based on the findings of the research on the perceived impacts of climate change on child nutrition in Chilonga, there are several areas that require further investigation. Therefore, it is suggested to carry out research in the following domains.
(a) Long-term studies capturing the full extent of the impact of climate change on child nutrition, as well as maternal nutrition, as the current study had a limited duration and focused only on child nutrition.
(b) Thorough evaluation of the effectiveness of initiatives aimed at addressing malnutrition, specifically examining the efficacy of different adaptation strategies in promoting child nutrition amidst climate change
(c) Since the current research was qualitative and lacked a mathematical modeling component, it is recommended to conduct studies that incorporate such methods to determine potential climate change risks on acute food insecurity and malnutrition.
Recommendations for mitigating the impacts of climate change on child nutrition at the national level
The following recommendations are suggested:
(a) Prioritize nutrition in healthcare and allocate sufficient funding for its support.
(b) Establish public health measures that include adequate child healthcare, access to safe water and sanitation systems, and provision of suitable and safe food.
(c) Provide strong leadership and effective governance to drive nutritional improvements.
(d) Speed up the transition to sustainable agriculture and food production to ensure food security and align with the country’s goals for 2030.
(e) Implement measures to protect and mandate micronutrient supplementation, such as iron and vitamin A, among food producers.
(f) Increase awareness and monitoring of food fortification to meet quality standards.
(g) Promote nutrition education and awareness through public campaigns and advocacy efforts.
(h) Strengthen and make social protection programs inclusive to protect vulnerable groups from food insecurity and malnutrition.
(i) Empower women and promote gender equity to mitigate climate change risks, including malnutrition.
(j) Implement nutrition-sensitive disaster risk reduction (DRR) and management, including early warning systems and climate change information dissemination.
(k) Ensure stockpiling of nutrition commodities at healthcare facilities for emergencies and establish therapeutic feeding programs.
(l) Integrate nutrition-specific and sensitive interventions to address malnutrition in the face of climate change.
(m) Develop and implement strong economic policies to stimulate economic growth and alleviate poverty.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
