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Abstract

A treasure of knowledge is lost when a language dies and it is irretrievable. While the majority of indigenous languages are endangered, it is difficult for these languages to survive in the 21st century socially diverse world. This study examines the role of social media in the preservation and promotion of indigenous languages, particularly Punjabi and Setswana, within the context of social media platforms Facebook and X (formally called Twitter). The qualitative approach, using a content analysis method, investigates the linguistic content shared on these platforms. These languages act as channels for language preservation and promotion, navigating time, place and identity in the digital era. Social media platforms, such as X and Facebook, have the potential to rejuvenate and conserve indigenous and endangered languages. The study reveals a rich tapestry of participation, expression, and community development in the digital arena, highlighting the potential of both platforms to preserve and promote indigenous languages. The study also explores aspects such as prosocial impacts, social norms and convincing representations. Overall, this study emphasizes the importance of making fundamental decisions about social media and indigenous language preservation and promotion, emphasizing the mitigation of challenges.

Keywords

Social media indigenous languages Setswana Punjabi language preservation language promotion

Introduction

It is difficult to envisage Indigenous languages surviving in the 21st century in this socially diverse world without the interference of digital technologies. According to optimistic estimates, at least 40% of the spoken languages in use now will either be extinct or gravely endangered by the year 2100. By the end of this century, 90%–95%, according to more miserable but credible projections, will either become extinct or gravely endangered. Indigenous languages make up the majority of these languages (Hale et al., 1992). By the end of this century, there may only be 300–600 oral languages in use that are not under threat (Curry, 2023). The tenacity remains that with each language that dies, a treasure of knowledge is lost, which may be irretrievable. Precisely, though Africa has over 2500 indigenous languages, few of them are utilized for media communication and a significant portion of the people are kept out of politics and public communication as a result of the gradual demise of some indigenous languages (Salawu et al., 2022). Correspondingly, the death of a language implies danger for the society in question if it allows people to behave cooperatively, organize people into communities and components and carry out group-decisions (Ngulube, 2012). In other words, the loss of a language marks the end of civilization. In the same context, Galla (2016) argued that one approach to ensure that a language is not ignored and is preserved for the present and future is through producing content in that language. Elderly speaking, cultural and linguistic reasons motivate language learners, speakers and promoters to pursue additional options and areas to connect with the language as a substantial percentage of Indigenous populations gradually lose their remaining literate (Sithole, 2002).

Social media is now an integral part of our daily life, however, particularly in the modern era. Due to the availability of interconnection and interdependence of culture, they have grown in importance to human life. Similarly, a situation is shaped where people can interact easily irrespective of how far they are from one another (Sawyer, 2011). Language and culture are linked in that they preserve one another. In this context, Sallabank (2010) asserts that social media may be important for revitalizing indigenous languages but may not be sufficient to preserve them.

Language usage and its rules changed with the rise of social networks, enhancing the experience of both native speakers and language learners (Warner and Chen, 2017). In the last 20 years, as highlighted in product announcements, news stories, reports, books and conferences, there has been an upsurge in interest in how social media might promote Indigenous language revival and restoration initiatives(Warner and Chen, 2017). Language usage and conventions changed with the rise of social networks, enhancing the knowledge of native speakers and those who are eager to learn the language. The argument was also reaffirmed (Beseghi, 2017) that little is known about social media and how they might improve language expansion and language learners’ skills. The development of socio-cultural awareness, a component of language acquisition, is possible through social media (Blattner and Fiori, 2011). For language programmes that wish to teach their languages to people all around the world, this understanding is essential. By suggesting that socio-culture knowledge through Facebook and other social media outlets is as crucial, (Placencia and Reiter, 2005) concur with this statement. Precisely, the use of social media by indigenous peoples can support attempts at language preservation, revival, promotion and education. Additional fields for language use can surface as new technologies and existing technologies are reimagined. Likewise, Omojola (2009) noted that the process of integrating indigenous languages with Information Communication Technologies should be initiated through societal efforts to develop those languages, while Dalvit (2010) concurs with him in believing that this integration will be the key component in reducing the linguistic disparity between speakers or users of the minority languages and the majority of the dominant languages. In addition, this would help to dispel the outdated linguistic and social stereotypes that degrade indigenous languages by assisting in the development of technical terminology that supports them. In this context, Kamusella and Ndhlovu (2018) claim that Language development develops as a result of linguistic and cultural diversity. Social media range from audio digital files, electronic mail for conversation, recording video to live voice–video meetings and/or browsing the web to enjoying online games are facilitated by social media (Galla, 2016: 173). Social media are involved in linguistic shifts. This typically happens when speakers of indigenous languages switch to a language that is widely known on a national and even international level (Kees and Stoessel, 2002). However, to maintain their language proficiency and give others the chance to learn it, speakers of indigenous languages should promote social networks (Sallabank, 2010). Meanwhile, according to Milroy and Llamas (2013), social networks’ tight bonds can help indigenous languages fend off pressure to change their languages. Moreover, that can help to preserve and promote indigenous languages without a doubt.

Research context

Nearly 97% of the worldwide population communicates 4% of the languages, such as languages with greater communication ranges English, Mandarin, Hindi, Spanish, Arabic and German (Galla, 2016). In comparison, only 3% of the world’s population speaks an estimated 96% of the languages (Curry, 2023). Indigenous languages are important because most of the indigenous people communicate through these languages; the death of these languages is the death of indigenous culture, indigenous communication and most importantly the death of language. Keeping in mind that to preserve, promote and keep alive these indigenous languages, there is a dire need to work jointly with indigenous people, communities, government and world organizations. Social media is a free means that can be used to preserve and promote indigenous languages; however, efforts are needed to understand the role, challenges and workouts to preserve and promote indigenous languages through social media.

Setswana language

Setswana, often known as Tswana, is Botswana’s most frequently spoken language. It is spoken by more than 70% of the population and is the most often used language in business and government. Setswana is a Bantu language, which is spoken in South Africa such as Sesotho, Sepedi and Xhosa. It has a long history and is strongly deep-rooted in the values and norms of the nation (Finnan, 2023). Similarly, Setswana is part of the Sotho branch of closely related Bantu languages spoken in southern Africa, commonly referred to as the Sotho languages (Chebanne, 2008). It has a strong connection to the Northern and Southern Sotho dialects as well as the Kgalagadi and Lozi languages. It is a Bantu language that can be found in the Sotho-Tswana stem of Zone S (S.30). Botswana and South Africa both have Setswana as their official language (Finnan, 2023). In Botswana and some regions of South Africa, especially the North West Province, it is widely spoken. There are ethnic groups that speak Tswana throughout more than two provinces of South Africa, particularly in the North West, where the language is spoken by roughly four million people. Setswana was ignored as a national language, and steps were launched to give it a significant role in the educational system (Mokibelo, 2016). All ethnic minority languages used in schools were forbidden under the administration of Botswana’s first President; and Setswana was elevated to promote national unity and identity (Nyati-Ramahobo, 2004). Some ethnic groups, such as the Bayei, Ikalanga and Batswapong, complained that their languages were not acknowledged as media of instruction and created associations to speak with a unified voice (Nyati-Ramahobo, 2008). Meanwhile, the newspapers transitioned from Setswana to English due to the restricted reading philosophy in indigenous languages, since the majority of individuals prefer to read English than Setswana (Mpofu, 2020). Setswana is also heavily impacted by neighbouring languages, however, there is a minimal effect from other languages in places where Setswana is the main language, the impact of English and Afrikaans on Setswana dialects communicated in South Africa is unchanged, as there is no phrase in Setswana for these concepts and the enactment of vocabulary into Setswana as loan expressions (Batibo, 2016).

Punjabi language

The largest linguistic group in Pakistan is of Punjabi descent, with the majority of its members living in Punjab. Despite being the majority’s native language, Punjabi has a minimal role in its native speakers’ daily lives (Abbas et al., 2019). The Punjabi language is both linguistically and literarily exceedingly rich (Singh, 2012), as the expression can result in dozens of locations and a wide range of ways (Zaid, 2010), earning it the nickname ‘wit-packed language’. Punjabi, also known as Panjabi, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Pakistan and India’s Punjab area. It has about 113 million native speakers. According to the 2017 census, Punjabi is the most generally spoken first language in Pakistan, with 80.5 million native speakers, and the 11th most widely spoken in India, with 31.1 million native speakers, according to the 2011 census. The language is spoken by a sizable abroad diaspora, primarily in Canada. Punjabi is written in Pakistan using the Shahmukhi alphabet, which is based on the Perso-Arabic script, and in India using the Gurmukhi alphabet, which is based on the Indic script (Singh, 2012). In its use of lexical tone, Punjabi is unique among Indo-Aryan languages and the larger Indo-European language family.

However, Punjabi Muslims adopted Urdu because it has been Pakistan’s lingua franca since 1947. Urdu has grown in popularity since 1971 (Ahmed, 2020). It became the language of the Punjabi intelligentsia of the middle and lower-middle classes. Upper-class Punjabis, like other upper-class South Asians, were English-educated and had little interest in vernacular languages or literature. Despite Punjabis controlling the majority of power in Pakistan, the push to promote Punjabi instruction in schools has failed (Ahmed, 2020). It is because the Punjabi elites have abandoned their native tongue in favour of two other, ostensibly more educated and modern languages.

Justification of comparative analysis of Setswana and Punjabi

Both Setswana and Punjabi languages have histories of interaction with colonial languages, and face some level of endangerment due to urbanization, globalization and migration. Examining how their speakers utilize social media to address language endangerment helps the study to understand common strategies and innovative approaches. Comparative research on these languages offers a singular chance to investigate how linguistic and cultural elements interact with social media in different cultures. The sociolinguistic concerns that each language encounters are diverse. In particular, the pressure resulting from globalization and the supremacy of English is a challenge for Setswana. The impact of changing language policies and linguistic fusion are problems for Punjabi. The study provides insightful information that applies to a wide range of language groups by examining how different languages deal with such difficulties in the digital sphere. This study has a great deal of potential for highlighting the various approaches used by different kinds of languages to deal with the difficulties posed by language endangerment and to maximize the opportunity of technology for linguistic preservation and promotion.

In this context, this study focused on the social media role in the preservation and promotion of indigenous languages. The study compares the Setswana language of South Africa and the Punjabi language from Pakistan. Keep in mind the notion that the speakers of these two languages are in decline, there is a dire need to preserve and promote these languages with the help of social media. The study investigates this issue with a qualitative approach using the content analysis method of the two main social media outlets, that is, Facebook and X (formally called Twitter) for the period of one year, from March 2022 to March 2023. The study proposes that indigenous languages be preserved and promoted through social media for this purpose; the study focuses on analysing the role of social media in the preservation and promotion of Setswana and Punjabi Indigenous languages.

Justification of the study

Some languages could seem to be literally at risk of fading. Social media might nevertheless be advantageous for linguistics. Similarly, in the context of indigenous language media, Salawu (2019) noted that indigenous language media must go online and adopt digital technologies to be easily accessible and compete with the world media. Similarly, half of the world’s 7000 languages will still be spoken by the end of the century (Curry, 2023). However, linguists and advocates for language preservation think that websites like Facebook and Twitter can help revive and protect indigenous, minority and endangered languages. One of the reasons some indigenous languages are at risk is the strengthening of dominant languages like English (Munyai and Phooko, 2021), Russian and Chinese due to increased connectivity via the Internet and social media (Hermes, 2013). Old studies even noted it is essential to preserve indigenous knowledge since doing so guarantees the survival of the community and its knowledge (Galla, 2009). The notion also discussed (Munyadziwa and Mncwango, 2021) that indigenous knowledge will be lost via the passing of elders and traditional leaders in African communities if it is not recorded and conserved, and it will continue to be inaccessible to other communities, academics, and development professionals. For instance, when a conventional midwife passes away, her knowledge and expertise in childbirth are lost forever (Owiny et al., 2014). Despite the crucial role that indigenous knowledge plays in fostering peace and sustainable development, many governments, funders and NGOs seem to underutilize this priceless resource (Gachanga, 2005).

Objectives of the study

The main objective of the study is to examine the potential of social media for the preservation and promotion of indigenous languages of Setswana and Punjabi languages. However, the study aims:

To understand the ability of social media in preserving and promoting indigenous languages;

To explore the challenges faced in the promotion and preservation of indigenous languages through social media;

To investigate the role of community and non-government organizations in the promotion of indigenous languages through social media;

To examine the strategic role of policymakers in the promotion and preservation of indigenous languages through social media.

Literature review

While reviewing the related literature, the studies highlighted the importance of social media for the promotion and survival of indigenous languages. According to Salawu (2019) in his study on the adoption of digital journalism practices by indigenous African-language newspapers, there are some native-language newspapers from certain nations online. According to his research, Isolezwe has adopted more digital journalism techniques than Alaroye, which may indicate that South Africa is ahead of other African nations in the adoption of these practices in news departments. However, there is no online African language journalism in Malawi because of a language policy that favours English as a source of prestige and power, a lack of indigenous language journalism education, the low added value of online journalism, a lack of digital piercing, impoverishment and low literacy rates (Kishindo, 2019). These studies, while relevant, are insufficient to understand the situation of digital journalism practised by publications published in native African languages (Kishindo, 2019). To investigate how digital journalism is being embraced by indigenous-language media in Africa and how they vary across cultures and situations, further cross-country analysis can be done. The usage of indigenous languages on social media is the subject of another area of digitization research. Precisely, Malatji (2019) finds that the majority of South African youth prefer not to use African languages on social media because English-language conversations predominate on Facebook and Twitter. He supports the creation of social media platforms with an African language focus that will encourage the use of regional tongues. Contrary to the target users’ limited capacity to read and write indigenous languages and the notion that such languages lack sophistication and modernization, Salawu (2020) and Sunday (2016: 11) found that indigenous-language newspapers in Nigeria had a weak presence on digital platforms. Indigenous people used social media to rally support in reaction to the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on communities and the absence of funding allocated to address these inequities (Corntassel, 2020). They also used it to engage in community resurgence. The deaths of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor and many others sparked movements on social media and in the streets in the United States, Canada and other countries. Language learners from the indigenous language revitalization (ILR) community shared messages showing support for #BlackLivesMatter by translating the hashtag into their native tongues (Chew, 2021). Even scholars argued on the importance of media being online and digitalized (Salawu, 2019) noted in his study that the adoption of digital technologies for indigenous language media is challenging due to resources, even if it is needed to be online and digitalized. Similarly, Punjabi has not been recognized as Pakistan’s national language, even though there are more Punjabi speakers than speakers of any other language in the country (Shackle, 2023). One of the main factors putting Punjabi in jeopardy is the lack of formal status as a national language (Ayres, 2008). Article 251 states that the national assembly determines national language status, although provincial languages should be supported at the province level (Mansoor, 2004).

Theoretical context

This study borrowed the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) for the framework to understand the notion that users participate in online activities if the desired outcomes are expected. TRA, presented by Ajzen (1991), Sideridis et al. (1998) and Sarver (1983) tries to explain and predict human behaviour by drawing on attitudes and subjective norms. According to this notion, a person’s attitude towards a certain activity and the perceived subjective norms connected to it decide whether they intend to partake in it.

The term ‘attitude’ refers to a person’s subjective assessment of an action, which may include opinions regarding the consequences of that activity as well as the general favourability or unfavourability they attach to it (Attention et al., 2003). Contrarily, subjective norms take into account social factors and the perception of whether close friends and family would like or disapprove of the activity. The idea says that an individual’s intention to engage in a given conduct is influenced by both attitude and subjective norms. The word ‘volitional behaviour’ in the TRA refers to activities that people take voluntarily and purposefully, frequently with a clear sense of choice (Oinas-Kukkonen and Harjumaa, 2008). According to this idea, people act in ways that are motivated by reason, carefully weighing the pros and drawbacks of many options as well as societal norms. The TRA is particularly useful in explaining why people choose to get involved as well as engage in such behaviours on the Internet and social media. When used to describe social media behaviour, attitudes reveal a person’s viewpoints on the advantages and drawbacks of using various social media platforms (Montano and Kasprzyk, 2015). Similarly, Özer and Yilmaz (2011) provides an example of how the TRA has been utilized in social media research. Their work (Hassandoust et al., 2011) demonstrates how this theory can be applied to explain users’ intentions and behaviours on social media platforms. They may have examined how users’ attitudes towards using social media, as well as their perceptions of what significant others expect them to do, contribute to their decisions to actively participate in online activities. The theory provides the playground to understand that social media play a role to preserve and promote indigenous languages, in case the desired outcomes are expected by the participants.

Research methodology

The preservation and promotion of indigenous languages, particularly Punjabi and Setswana, within the context of social media platforms, is investigated through a qualitative approach using a content analysis method. To understand how these language-related efforts are manifested online, content analysis enables a systematic assessment of the linguistic and cultural content shared on these platforms. Focusing on the notions of procedure and objective, Berelson (2000) highlights the analysis process as a trustworthy and teachable approach that displaces the researcher’s authority. However, the qualitative and latent perspective of the analysis is not adequately captured by Berelson’s formulation. Krippendorff (2004) defined content analysis as ‘a research technique for making plausible and reliable inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use’ to make the method applicable to both a statistical and qualitative approach without establishing the depth of study. The study investigates this issue with a qualitative approach using the content analysis method of the two main social media outlets, that is, Facebook and X (formally called Twitter) for the period of one year, from March 2022 to March 2023.

Data collection

The data are collected through a social media matrix, Facebook and X (formally called Twitter) APIs for Facebook and X, respectively; while manual data are also collected for the validity of collected data. In addition, also used keywords Setswana, Tswana Botswana, Punjabi and Pakistani Punjabi keywords to access the pages, groups and posts on Facebook and X (Twitter). The time frame for the research is March 2022 to March 2023, so all the irrelevant data were ignored.

Sample selection

A purposive sampling technique is used to pick social media sites, that is, Facebook and X (formally Twitter), and information that is pertinent to the Punjabi and Setswana languages for the selected period. Using this sampling technique, only language-related posts are analysed. Purposive sampling is a technique commonly used in qualitative research to locate and select cases with the most information while making the greatest use of available resources (Etikan et al., 2016). This entails locating and choosing individuals or groups of individuals who have particular expertise in or experience with an interesting phenomenon (Cresswell and Plano Clark, 2011). Barnard and Spencer (2002) using the notion of Spradley (1979) to highlight the importance of availability, participation and the ability to communicate experiences and ideas in a clear, expressive and reflective manner in addition to knowledge and experience. The popularity of the platform among speakers of the target language and the presence of content related to language promotion and preservation are important selection criteria.

Sources of data

On websites like Facebook and X, the majority of the data sources are posts, comments, photographs and hashtags that are accessible to the general public. Efforts to promote, engage with or maintain the Punjabi and Setswana languages are shown through content.

Data analyses

The study adopted a thematic analysis technique. Codes were developed using the collected. Coding, according to Bliss et al. (1979), is the ‘critical link’ between the collection of data and their interpretation. Therefore, coding was carried out by looking for patterns that showed. Then to concentrate meaning, data were categorized by grouping, rearranging and linking the codes.

Coding process

Creation of the codebook

Based on a literature review and initial data investigation, a draft codebook is created. The codebook includes codes for language promotion, language preservation, cultural expression and community involvement.

Coding method

To guarantee inter-coder reliability, two researchers independently assessed and coded a portion of the data. Any coding disagreements aired and settled by consensus. The complete dataset is coded using the final codebook once agreement has been obtained.

Analysis of the data

Thematic analysis

The coded data are subjected to thematic analysis to find recurrent themes, patterns and concepts. It is delved deeply into issues like linguistic identity, creating online communities, language adaptability and user engagement.

Parameter for the comparative analysis (coding)

Content type

The content types that were exchanged in Setswana and Punjabi, such as text posts, photographs, videos and tales, were compared and examined whether one language predominates in specific content types.

Posting pattern

The frequency of Setswana and Punjabi posts over the specified period was examined and analysed whether one language has more frequent and consistent publishing than the other.

Engagement outlook

Engagement metrics (likes, shares, comments and retweets) for Setswana and Punjabi material were analysed for comparison and to determine which language creates the most user involvement.

Themes in the content

The main theme of the Setswana and Punjabi content was investigated and analysed if some issues are more often discussed or disseminated in one language than the other.

User demographics

The demographics of Setswana and Punjabi content users were investigated and analysed by the geography and gender of the audience.

Language adaptation and creativity

This parameter is set to know if Setswana and Punjabi are creatively adapted to social media and to look for language-specific linguistic novelties, idiomatic terms and linguistic fun.

Community building

Social media groups, pages and forums related to Setswana and Punjabi were analysed to understand the online community building for language preservation and promotion.

Ethical considerations

To protect the privacy and confidentiality of social media users, ethical norms were observed. Data collected from social media platforms are anonymized and individuals’ identities are preserved. Triangulation was used to improve the rigour of the qualitative content analysis by comparing findings with existing research, consulting specialists in indigenous languages and undertaking member-checking with participants. Potential biases in data collection and analysis, as well as the inability to capture all nuances of language preservation attempts in the digital domain, are the limitations of this qualitative study. This qualitative methodology uses content analysis to investigate the many ways in which Punjabi and Setswana languages are preserved and promoted via social media platforms, linguistic and cultural analyses.

Findings

The data collected for the content analysis method during the specific time frame, about the selected parameters discussed in the methodology chapter, are presented below.

Content types

Text post and tweets

The data indicate that regarding Setswana, 18,393 text posts were posted on the Facebook pages, groups and forums while 30,212 tweets were recorded during the specific period; these text posts were more than the Punjabi language where 15,332 text posts were retrieved on Facebook, whereas 21,451 tweets were recorded during this period. The results indicate that Setswana gains more posts and tweets than the Punjabi language. This suggests that there is a high volume of content on Facebook and X regarding the Setswana language compared to the Punjabi language. This also indicates that there is a higher number of existences of Setswana language-related content and discussion on both social media outlets.

The data show a more significant and visible presence of Setswana language-related information on both social media sites, demonstrating the language’s robust involvement and conversations. The increased involvement with Setswana material shows the Setswana-speaking community’s concerted effort to engage, share and promote their language and cultural heritage via digital platforms also discussed (Jordaan and Nel, 2023). The disparity in interaction raises concerns about the content design and user behaviour in each language. The increased Setswana involvement might be ascribed to a variety of variables, including content topics, community dynamics and the presence of language advocates.

Photographs

The data reveal that 1750 Setswana-related photographs on Facebook were posted, and 1134 photographs were tweeted on X during this period, while regarding Punjabi there were 1533 photographs on Facebook and 1245 photographs on X were tweeted during this period. Here the results indicate that Setswana-related photographs on social media were higher than the volume of photographs related to the Punjabi language. If we consider the old idiom of communication Picture speaks louder than words (Sharafizad et al., 2023), this indicates that photographic content related to the Setswana language is higher than the Punjabi language, therefore, more content is preserved and promoted about Setswana than the Punjabi language during this period.

Tales

In comparison to Setswana (2139), Punjabi (5533) had a much higher number of stories posted on Facebook within the specified time frame. This shows that there is more content on Facebook related to Punjabi folktales.

On X (Twitter), Setswana (921) and Punjabi (945) have roughly equal numbers of tales-related tweets. In terms of tales-related content on X (Twitter), there is less of a divide between the two languages.

The greater quantity of stories posted in Punjabi on Facebook may be proof of the importance of storytelling in Punjabi culture. Cultural values and identity are frequently reflected in literature.

The greater number of Punjabi speakers or the more active digital presence of Punjabi-speaking communities on Facebook may be the cause of the higher engagement with Punjabi Tales material.

The diversity of themes within the narrative content is the cause of the inequalities in engagement. Punjabi stories also cover a larger range of subjects or have a greater cultural appeal. This argument is also supported by Dahiya (2023) that Punjabi culture is covered in local stories and needs to be digitally available.

Even if there has been a decline in engagement with Setswana tales’ content on Facebook, this is still a sign that attempts are being made to promote and preserve these classic tales in the Setswana language. Engagement with storytelling content in both languages demonstrates a dedication to maintaining linguistic and cultural continuity through digital channels.

Relevant literature also emphasizes the significance of cultural stories and narratives in defining identity, passing along values and bringing communities together. Cultural storytelling customs facilitate intergenerational communication and aid in cultural preservation (Lubogo, 2023). Similarly, also agrees that the rich legacy of Punjabi literature and the attempts of the worldwide diaspora to connect with their roots through digital platforms may be responsible for the increased engagement with Punjabi tales posts on Facebook (David, 2023).

Posting pattern of Setswana and Punjabi languages

The data reveal that both languages show consistency on social media, and the importance of Setswana and Punjabi in social media spaces is highlighted by the observed regular posting trends in these languages on Facebook and X (Twitter). This consistency demonstrates the active role users have in using online platforms to preserve their language and cultural history, fostering a sense of belonging, identity and continuity. This research is in line with literature that highlights the importance of digital platforms in attempts to preserve culture and revitalize languages (Owiny et al., 2014) and the theoretical framework utilized for this study.

Understanding the digital engagement dynamics of Setswana and Punjabi languages requires knowledge of their consistent posting patterns on Facebook and X (Twitter) during the stipulated period. Consistent posting patterns in the Setswana and Punjabi languages show a long-standing interest in cultural heritage, as noted (Dryden and Izadi, 2023) that regularly posting YouTube videos helps to promote cultural heritage. Groups within communities are actively working to maintain and advance their language and cultural traditions.

The regular posting trend illustrates the pride in the languages. To support linguistic diversity and strengthen their sense of cultural identity, it appears that users are keen to share content in their native dialects. Consistency in posting suggests that people view digital platforms as useful mediums for expressing their culture supported by the study of Galla (2016) and Salawu (2019), sharing stories, and participating in debates in their native language.

Engagement outlook

Both Setswana and Punjabi have had significant engagement across all measures, showing active participation and interest from the respective language groups. Punjabi has slightly more likes and shares than Setswana. This shows that Punjabi material has captured people’s attention and elicited favourable emotions and sharing. Setswana received far more replies and retweets than Punjabi. This could imply a stronger degree of engagement through debates and users’ desire to share Setswana content in the future. The increased amount of Setswana comments and retweets indicates that users are actively participating in debates and amplifying material in that language. This could imply a strong sense of belonging and interaction. The varying engagement levels could be attributed to the content’s relevancy and relatability to the respective language-speaking communities. Content that is favourably received by users receives more interaction, similarly, noted by Zhuang et al. (2023) that the more content users receive, their engagement increases. The engagement metrics indicate the role of social media platforms in connecting linguistic communities as argued by Owiny et al. (2014). Users actively respond to and interact with native language material. While Punjabi content earned more shares, Setswana content appears to be more likely to stimulate discussions and conversations, as evidenced by the greater number of comments and retweets. The disparities in engagement patterns between likes and shares on one hand, and comments and retweets on the other imply a complex engagement dynamic supporting the notion discussed by Arazzi et al. (2023) that post on Twitter has a greater impact in term of engagement. While likes and shares show surface-level acceptance and dissemination, comments and retweets show a deeper degree of involvement and connection.

The engagement measures emphasize the importance of cultural and linguistic differences. Different metrics can capture various kinds of involvement, such as emotional responses (likes), material dispersion (shares) and substantive discussion (comments and retweets).

The information reflects how consumers interact with content. Comments and retweets show a more active and engaged audience, whereas likes and shares show passive acknowledgement and endorsement supported by this study (Baqir et al., 2023). The analysis demonstrates how language, engagement and user behaviour interact in complicated ways on social media. The engagement figures show how Setswana and Punjabi material connects with their respective audiences as well as how various measures help us understand social media usage as a whole.

Content themes

The most prominent content theme in both Setswana and Punjabi is ‘Educational Content’, followed by ‘Language Issues’, ‘Social Issues’ and ‘Policy-related Content’. The greater number of postings about ‘Language Issues’ for both languages emphasize the importance of linguistic identity and the worries about language preservation and promotion. The prevalence of ‘Educational Content’ in both languages indicates a proactive approach to sharing knowledge, learning materials and educational debates on social media platforms. The high level of involvement with ‘Social Issues’ material implies that people want to address and discuss societal issues, potentially increasing awareness and stimulating conversations as precisely noted by Choi et al. (2023) that awareness to social issues create engagement among the youth on social media.

While ‘Policy-related Content’ has a lower count, it is reassuring to note that people engage in policy-related debates, indicating a desire to influence policy discourse through social media.

The prevalence of themes in both languages suggests that each language community has shared interests such as language preservation, education, societal challenges and legislative lobbying. The interaction with social, linguistic and policy issues illustrates the potential for digital activism and community participation on social media platforms. Engagement with educational and linguistic content demonstrates a dedication to cultural expression, information exchange and community empowerment. The emphasis on ‘Language Issues’ reflects a concentrated attempt to maintain linguistic history and address language use and recognition challenges. The strong involvement with ‘Social Issues’ content suggests that social media can be used to express concerns, advocate for change and mobilize communities around common causes.

While the subjects are similar in both languages, the levels of participation may differ due to factors such as user demographics, cultural contexts and the importance of certain concerns. The prominence of ‘Language Issues’ indicates ongoing efforts in the digital arena to renew and promote Setswana and Punjabi languages, which is concurred by Galla (2016) that digital media has the power to preserve and revitalize indigenous languages.

User demographics

The data reveal the demographic details of the users, most of the moderators of the pages and groups admins were recorded as male for both Setswana and Punjabi languages, while a female presence was also recorded. The users who engaged and followed those forums, pages and groups were mostly from South Africa. For Punjabi languages, most of the users who engaged in comments, likes, shares, retweets and followed the pages and groups were from Pakistan. The preponderance of male moderators/admins on Setswana and Punjabi pages and groups may reflect gender dynamics in online communities, where men are more visible in leadership roles. The presence of female moderators/admins demonstrates a diversified representation and emphasizes women’s involvement in content development and community management.

The majority of Setswana page and group user involvement comes from South Africa, implying that the content resonates well with the local population, potentially due to cultural and linguistic relevance.

Similarly, the bulk of contact from users in Pakistan for Punjabi indicates a strong link between the region’s language and culture. The presence of Indian users emphasizes the international aspect of Punjabi language participation. The inclusion of both male and female moderators/admins reflects attempts to diversify leadership roles and content development, resulting in a more inclusive online community.

User interaction from South Africa for Setswana and Pakistan for Punjabi demonstrates that users are drawn to material that is culturally and geographically relevant to them.

The presence of people from many places demonstrates social media’s ability to create virtual communities that transcend physical boundaries. While both languages exhibit comparable patterns of male moderators/admins and user interaction by country, the individual regions (South Africa and Pakistan) represent distinct linguistic, cultural and historical characteristics. The study illustrates how social media platforms not only assist language preservation but also various community relationships and cross-border exchanges of culture.

Community building

Both Setswana and Punjabi languages make significant attempts to develop communities on social media platforms by creating groups, pages and forums. Lekgotla la Setswana (Setswana Association), Puo Letlotlo (Language is Wealth), Setswana se se kwenneng (Rich Setswana) and Tlhalosi ya Medi ya Setswana (A monolingual Setswana dictionary) are some of the Facebook pages devoted to celebrating and discussing the Setswana language in Setswana.

When compared to Punjabi, Setswana has a higher number of community engagement platforms (groups, pages and forums), showing strong initiatives to enhance language and cultural participation. While there are fewer interaction opportunities for Punjabi than for Setswana, there is still a strong commitment to establishing online communities around the language also noted by Zembe and Barnes (2023) while investigating community engagement challenges.

Numerous Setswana and Punjabi groups, pages and forums demonstrate ongoing attempts to conserve, promote and engage with these languages in the digital domain previous studies (Galla, 2016) also pointed out this notion. The variety of engagement platforms suggests a variety of content types and goals, such as language courses, cultural debates, storytelling and the dissemination of pertinent news and resources.

These platforms establish virtual gathering places where people with similar language and cultural identities may interact, exchange experiences, and have dialogues. The platforms contribute to language revitalization by allowing users to use, learn and celebrate their original languages. By analysing the results tailing with the objective of the study ‘To understand the potential of social media in preserving and promoting indigenous languages’, the study achieved the objective and showed that social media has the potential and ability to preserve and promote indigenous languages.

The emergence of Punjabi engagement platforms in many countries demonstrates how language crosses borders and links groups in disparate locales. The higher number of engagement platforms in Setswana could be attributed to reasons such as regional focus, specific cultural activities or a larger Internet presence within a certain community. While Setswana has more engagement platforms, the quality and impact of involvement, which may differ across the two languages, should also be evaluated. Social Media can be utilized in a variety of ways to revitalize and conserve Indigenous, minority and endangered languages. Even a Facebook group to share words, phrases and songs, having a presence on websites such as Facebook or X (Twitter) allows the group to reach a wider audience.

Language creativity

Setswana and Punjabi both display a variety of language innovation topics, such as amusing material (memes and fun), historical references, creative preservation efforts, linguistic novelties and idiomatic expressions.

An idiom from the Setswana Facebook page ‘Wa oesi ga o ele’, the literal translation is that ‘One person’s pee cannot create a river flow’; however, it means that we need more people to do such things, this is not a one-person job. Another idiom is noted like ‘Moremogolo go betlwa wa taola, wa motho o wa ipetla’. This means that ‘A person chooses their own path to life’. The results also recorded some idioms from Punjabi language like ‘Ku’tti choron naal rali ay’, which means that ‘the stupid person join the wrong party’ and ‘Vall vinga na hona’, which means ‘you can’t even touch me’; these show that these pages are preserving lot of idioms.

The popularity of ‘Memes and Fun’ content in both languages demonstrates the importance of humour in engaging users and making language-related content approachable and entertaining.

The presence of historical information indicates a deliberate effort to integrate language creativity with cultural legacy, maybe to build a sense of identity and continuity. The inclusion of ‘Creative Preservation’ implies the employment of a variety of creative methods to promote and sustain languages in digital areas. The existence of ‘Linguistic Novelties’ and ‘Idiomatic Terms’ in both languages suggests a passion for language and an examination of linguistic complexities. The popularity of hilarious content indicates how modern digital culture is being used to express cultural nuances, emotions and shared experiences as discussed by Hadi et al. (2024) that user behaviour mutually change in new environment.

The addition of historical content implies a wish to link language invention with cultural heritage, stressing the language’s historical significance and ongoing relevance.

The presence of ‘Creative Preservation’ initiatives demonstrates how digital platforms can be used to make language learning and participation more interesting and imaginative. The investigation of ‘Linguistic Novelties’ and ‘Idiomatic Terms’ indicates an interest in language evolution as well as a commitment to linguistic diversity. The similar methods to language innovation in Setswana and Punjabi demonstrate shared approaches to language creativity while allowing for unique expressions within each language’s cultural context. The greater presence of ‘Linguistic Novelties’ and ‘Idiomatic Terms’ in Setswana material shows a community-wide emphasis on linguistic discovery and linguistic production; however, Hagège (1993) noted that the tendency to create natural form and structure, a tendency to morphological evaluation. The analysis of Setswana and Punjabi languages in the social media domain demonstrates their adaptation, resilience and transformative capacity. These languages function as conduits for cultural preservation, expression and connection, rather than just communication. These languages navigate the digital world while also navigating the borders of time, region and identity, creating a harmonious symphony of diversity and unity in the digital age.

Challenges to preserve and promote indigenous languages

Although social media platforms present unheard-of prospects for the promotion and preservation of languages like Setswana and Punjabi, it is crucial to address issues with content quality, engagement sustainability, technology availability and community dynamics. These difficulties can be overcome by carefully adjusting methods and creating a welcoming and encouraging digital environment, which will assist the robust preservation and development of these languages in the digital age.

It is difficult to make sure that the content is of a good standard, relevant to different cultures and enjoyable for both native speakers and students. If the audience does not connect with the content, engagement may be ineffective. It is difficult to keep the language accurate and stop dialectical variants from spreading. Users may unintentionally spread material that promotes poor linguistic usage. It became difficult to continually maintain user engagement over time. Participation may drop due to waning interest or the perception of repetitious information. Not every language speaker has the same level of access to technology or online resources. Different groups within the linguistic community may become less engaged as a result. If they are unsure about their linguistic abilities, language learners are reluctant to participate. Native speakers may mistakenly ignore or reject the contributions of students. It is challenging to sustain courteous and positive interactions while filtering user-generated content. Discussions may become tense, which would detract from the overall experience. Even study shows that it is difficult to engage younger generations since they could favour other digital entertainment options and might not see the immediate benefits of language preservation. In fact, a major obstacle to the promotion and preservation of languages can be the absence of government involvement, especially in the context of social media activities. Government assistance is essential to language preservation efforts because it can offer the tools, framework, laws and programmes necessary to promote linguistic diversity and cultural heritage.

By meticulously examining content quality, engagement sustainability, technology accessibility and community dynamics, the research identified challenges that impede these languages’ digital proliferation, the study successfully achieved the objectives set for this study.

Conclusion

The results reveal how technology aids Indigenous language preservation and promotion initiatives and gives a thorough grasp of how technology affects Indigenous language communities. Some languages may appear to be in danger of degeneration – literally. However, social media may be useful for languages. UNESCO predicts that half of the world’s estimated 7000 languages will be extinct by the end of the century (Curry, 2023). Linguistic and cultural considerations encourage language learners, speakers and advocates to look into alternative opportunities and domains to connect with the language as a substantial number of Indigenous communities are fast losing their surviving fluent, older speakers. To preserve the vast amount of knowledge ingrained in each of these Indigenous languages and civilizations, technological endeavours have provided additional ways to preserve a language. Technology has allowed language learners to access classes, materials and resources in physically remote regions that are outside of their traditional homelands, expanding the social world of language. According to the data, digital technology has the advantage of exposing language learners to a wider range of topics and situations. Language learners who live, visit, work or attend school in different parts of the world are now increasingly reached using audio and video conferencing, social networks and other online settings to interact in the language regardless of their location. There is a lot of potential in using technology as an additional tool to record and distribute linguistic resources. When languages that are endangered are used online, they have a better chance of survival. This notion is also supported by Minhas et al. (2016) that social media are just another way for people to stay connected to their language.

The study explores the linguistic and cultural dynamics of Setswana and Punjabi languages on social media platforms, revealing significant patterns in engagement data. Both languages have constant posting trends, demonstrating their adaptability to changing communication channels. Thematic trends reveal that Setswana and Punjabi languages cater to various user interests and needs, including humorous material, historical value, creative preservation efforts, linguistic novelties and idiomatic idioms. Demographic findings reveal a complex interplay of gender, geographical location and diaspora influence, with male moderators predominating and female moderators indicating increasing inclusiveness. User interaction is most prevalent in South Africa for Setswana and Pakistan for Punjabi, highlighting the inherent link between language, culture and geography.

The emergence of various groups, pages and forums dedicated to Setswana and Punjabi demonstrates the proactive efforts for community building. These online communities serve as virtual gathering places for language enthusiasts, learners and cultural advocates to share knowledge, stories and experiences. The active projects demonstrate the importance of social media in preserving linguistic heritage and transcending geographical differences.

Humour emerges as a common topic in the area of linguistic invention, as seen by the ubiquity of memes and fun-related content in both languages. Historical content and innovative preservation attempts demonstrate a purposeful link between language and cultural heritage. The emphasis in Setswana content on linguistic novelties and idiomatic phrases emphasizes the language’s significance in investigating linguistic subtleties and sustaining language vitality. In this article, it is examined that these languages go beyond ordinary communication to act as channels for cultural preservation and promotion. As they navigate the digital world, these languages concurrently navigate the borders of time, place and identity, creating a harmonic symphony of variety and unity in the digital era. Social networking platforms like Facebook and X (Twitter) have the potential to rejuvenate and conserve Indigenous, minority and endangered languages. Increased connectedness via the Internet and social media has reinforced dominant languages such as English, Russian and Chinese, which is one of the reasons some indigenous languages are vulnerable.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Shahid Minhas

Author biographies

Shahid Minhas is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at Indigenous Language Media in Africa (ILMA), North-West University South Africa.

Abiodun Salawu is a Professor of Journalism, Communication and Media Studies and Director of the research entity, Indigenous Language Media in Africa (ILMA) at the North-West University, South Africa.

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Preserving and Promoting Indigenous Languages: Social Media Analysis of Punjabi and Setswana Languages

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Research context

Setswana language

Punjabi language

Justification of comparative analysis of Setswana and Punjabi

Justification of the study

Objectives of the study

Literature review

Theoretical context

Research methodology

Data collection

Sample selection

Sources of data

Data analyses

Coding process

Creation of the codebook

Coding method

Analysis of the data

Thematic analysis

Parameter for the comparative analysis (coding)

Content type

Posting pattern

Engagement outlook

Themes in the content

User demographics

Language adaptation and creativity

Community building

Ethical considerations

Findings

Content types

Text post and tweets

Photographs

Tales

Posting pattern of Setswana and Punjabi languages

Engagement outlook

Content themes

User demographics

Community building

Language creativity

Challenges to preserve and promote indigenous languages

Conclusion

Footnotes

Funding

ORCID iD

Author biographies

References