The 1990s have been called the “empowerment era,” yet growing evidence suggests that empowerment programs often fail to meet the expectations of both managers and employees. To provide a better understanding as to why empowerment programs often fail and to suggest how such failures may be averted, we examine the power behind empowerment. Ironically, although power and empowerment are inextricably linked, much of the work on empowerment in the business literature has been devoid of any discussion of power. We present a four-dimensional model which shows the multifaceted way in which power works. In it, we observe the similarities and differences in the ways that different theorists have approached the study of power, notably those ascribing to mainstream, critical, and Foucauldian perspectives. We then use this power model as a lens with which to examine empowerment practices in business. This analysis suggests a number of possible reasons for the failure of business empowerment programs and provides directions for future research and practice which might address these shortcomings.
ALINSKY, S. D.Reveille for radicals. New York: Vintage Books , 1969.
2.
ALINSKY, S. D.Rules for radicals. New York: Vintage Books , 1971.
3.
ALVESSON, M.Questioning rationality and ideology: On critical organization theory . International Studies of Management and Organizations, 1984, 14(1), 61-79 .
4.
ALVESSON, M. , & DEETZ, S.Critical theory and postmodernism approaches to organizational studies. In S. R. Clegg , C. Hardy , & W. R. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organization studies. London: Sage , 1996, pp. 191-217.
5.
ALVESSON, M. , & WILLMOTT H.On the idea of emancipation in management and organization studies . Academy of Management Review, 1992, 17(3), 432-464 . (a)
6.
ALVESSON, M. , & WILLMOTT, H. (Eds). Critical management studies. London: Sage , 1992. (b)
7.
ASHLEY, D.Habermas and the completion of the “project of modernity.” In B. S. Turner (Ed.), Theories of modernity & post modernity. London: Sage , 1990, pp. 88-107.
8.
ASTLEY, W. G. , & SACHDEVA, P. S.Structural sources of intraorganizational power: A theoretical synthesis . Academy of Management Review, 1984, 9(1), 104-113 .
9.
BACHRACH, P. , & BARATZ, M. S.The two faces of power . American Political Science Review, 1962, 56, 947-952 .
10.
BACHRACH, P. , & BARATZ, M. S.Decisions and nondecisions: An analytical framework . American Political Science Review, 1963, 57, 641-651 .
11.
BACHRACH, R. , & BARATZ, M. S.Power and poverty. London: Oxford University Press , 1970.
12.
BANDURA, A.Social foundations of thought and action A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall , 1986.
13.
BARBALETT, J. M.Power and resistance . British Journal of Sociology, 1988, 36(4), 531-548 .
14.
BARKER, J. R.Tightening the iron cage: concertive control in self-managing teams . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1993, 38, 408-437 .
15.
BEATTY, R. W. , & ULRICH, D. O.Re-energizing the mature organization . Organizational Dynamics, 1991, 20(1), 16-30 .
16.
BELASCO, J. A.Masters of empowerment . Executive Excellence, 1989, 6(3), 11-12 .
17.
BELL, C. , & ZEMKE, R.Do service procedures tie employees hands?Personnel Journal, 1988, 67(9), 77-83 .
18.
BENTON, T.Objective interests and the sociology of power . Sociology, 1981, 15(2), 161-184 .
19.
BERNSTEIN, A. J.Why empowerment programs often fail . Executive Excellence, 1992, 9(7), 5 .
20.
BEYER, J. M. , DUNBAR, R. L. M. , & MEYER, A. D.Comment: The concept of ideology in organizational analysis . Academy of Management Review, 1988, 13(3), 489 .
21.
BLOCK, P.How to be the new kind of manager . Working Woman, 1990, 15(7), 51-56 .
22.
BOOKMAN, A. , & MORGAN, S.Women and the politics of empowerment. Philadelphia: Temple University Press , 1988.
23.
BOWEN, D. E. , & LAWLER, E. E.The empowerment of service workers: What, why, how, and when . Sloan Management Review, 1992, 33(3), 31-39 .
24.
BOYTE, H. C. , & RIESSMAN, F.The new populism: The politics of empowerment. Philadelphia: Temple University Press , 1986.
25.
BRADSHAW-CAMBALL, P. , & MURRAY, V.Illusions and other games: A trifocal view of organizational politics . Organization Science, 1991, 2(4), 379-398 .
26.
BROWN, D.Why participative management won't work here . Management Review, 1992, 81(6), 42-46 .
27.
BROWN, T. L.Fearful of empowerment: Should managers be terrified?Industry Week, 1990, 239(12), 12 .
28.
BRYMER, R. A.Employee empowerment: A guest-driven leadership strategy . Cornell Hotel & Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 1991, 32(1), 58-68 .
29.
BURKE, W. W.Leadership as empowering others. In S. Srivasta , and Associates (Eds.), Executive power. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass , 1986, pp. 51-77.
30.
CARDY, R. L. , DOBBINS, G. H. , & CARSON, K. P.TQM and HRM: Improving performance appraisal, research, theory and practice . Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 1995, 12(2), 106-115 .
31.
CARR, C.Managing self-managed workers . Training and Development, 1991, 45(9), 36-42 .
32.
CLEGG, S.Power, rule and domination. London: Routledge , 1975.
33.
CLEGG, S.Frameworks of power. London: Sage , 1989.
34.
CLIFFORD, J.Travelling cultures. In L. Grossberg , C. Nelson , & P. A. Treichler (Eds.), Cultural studies. New York: Routledge , 1992.
35.
CONGER, J. A. , & KANUNGO, R. N.The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice . Academy of Management Review, 1988, 13(3), 471-482 .
36.
COOPER, R. , & BURRELL, G.Modernism, postmodernism and organizational analysis: An introduction . Organization Studies, 1988, 9(1), 91-112 .
37.
CRENSON, M. A.The un-politics of air pollution: A study of nondecision making in the cities. Baltimore: John-Hopkins Press , 1971.
38.
CROZIER, M.The bureaucratic phenomenonChicago: University of Chicago Press , 1964.
39.
CULLEN, D. & TOWNLEY, B.Autonomy and Empowerment: New Wine in Old Bottles . Paper presented at the Western Academy of Management Santa Fe, NM, 1994.
40.
DACKS, G. , & COATES, K. 1988. Northern communities: The prospects for empowerment. Alberta: Boreal Institute for Northern Studies , 1988.
41.
DAHL, R.The concept of power . Behavioral Science, 1957, 20, 201-215 .
42.
DEAN, J. W. , & BOWEN, D. E.Management theory and total quality: Improving research and practice through theory development . Academy of Management Review, 1994, 19(3), 392-418 .
43.
DEETZ, S.Democracy in an age of corporate colonization: Developments in communication and the politics of everyday life. Albany, NY: State University of New York , 1992. (a)
44.
DEETZ, S.Disciplinary power in the modern corporation. In M. Alvesson & H. Willmott (Eds.), Critical management studies. London: Sage , 1992, pp. 21-45. (b)
45.
DELBRIDGE, R. , TURNBULL, R. , & WILKINSON, B.Pushing back the frontiers . New Technology and Employment, 1992, 7(2), 97-106 .
46.
DENZIN, N.The art and politics of interpretation. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage , 1994, pp. 500-515.
47.
DENZIN, N. K. , & LINCOLN, Y. S.Entering the field of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage , 1994, pp. 1-18.
48.
DOYLE, F. P.People-power: The global human resource challenge for the 90's . Columbia Journal of World Business, 1990, 25(1), 36-45 .
49.
DREYFUS, H. L. , & RABINOW, P.Michel Foucault Beyond structuralism and hermeneutics. Brighton: Harvester , 1982.
FELDMAN, D. C. , & LEANA, C. R.Better practices in managing layoffs . Human Resource Management, 1994, 33(2), 239-260 .
56.
FLEMING, P. C.Empowerment strengthens the rock . Management Review, 1991, 80(12), 34-37 .
57.
FORD, R. C. , & FOTTLER, M. D.Empowerment: A matter of degree . Academy of Management Executive, 1995, 9(3), 21-31 .
58.
FORESTER, J.Planning in the face of power. Berkeley: University of California Press , 1989.
59.
FORESTER, J.Critical ethnography: On fieldwork in a Habermasian way. In M. Alvesson & H. Willmot (Eds.), Critical management studies. London: Sage , 1992, pp. 46-65.
60.
FOUCAULT, M.Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Harmondsworth: Penguin , 1977.
61.
FOUCAULT, M.Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings 1972-1977. In C. Gordon (ed.), Brighton: Harvester Press , 1980.
62.
FOUCAULT, M.The subject and power. In H. L. Dreyfus , & P. Rabinow (Eds.), Michel Foucault: Beyond structuralism and hermeneutics. Brighton: Harvester , 1982, pp. 208-226.
63.
FOUCAULT M.The history of sexuality: An introduction. Harmondsworth: Penguin , 1984.
64.
FOX, A.Industrial relations: A social critique of pluralist ideology. In Child, J. (Ed.), Man and organization, London: Allen and Unwin , 1973.
65.
FOXMAN, L. D. , & POLSKY, W. L.Share the power . Personnel Journal, 1991, 70(9), 116-120 .
66.
FREEMAN, S. J.Organizational downsizing as convergence and reorientation: Implications for human resource management . Human Resource Management, 1994, 33(2), 213-238 .
67.
FREIRE, P.Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum , 1992.
68.
FRENCH, J. R. P. , & RAVEN, B.The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright & A. Zander (Eds.), Group dynamics. New York: Harper and Row , 1968.
69.
FROST: P. J. , & EGRL C. P.The political process of innovation. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press , 1989.
70.
FROST, P. J.Power, politics and influence. In F. M. Jablin , L. L. Putnam , K. H. Roberts , L. W. Porter (Eds.), Handbook of organizational communications: An interdisciplinay perspective. London: Sage , 1987.
71.
FUGELSANG, A.Applied communication in developing countries. Uppsala: The Dag Hammarskjold Foundation , 1973.
72.
GANDZ, J.The employee empowerment era . Business Quarter&, 1990, 55(2), 74-79 .
73.
GAVENTA, J.Power and powerlessness. London: Oxford University Press , 1980.
74.
GIDDENS, A.Central problems in social theory. London: MacMillan , 1979.
75.
GONRING, M. P.Communication makes employee involvement work . Public Relations Journal1991, 47(11), 38-40 .
76.
GOSKI, K. L. , & BELFRY, M.Achieving competitive advantage through employee empowerment . Employment Relations Today, 1991, 18(2), 213-220 .
77.
GRAY, B. , & ARISS. S.Politics and strategic change across organizational life cycles , Academy of Management Review, 1985, 10(4), 707-723 .
78.
GRUBER, J. , & TRICKETT, E. J.Can we empower others? The paradox of empowerment in the governing of an alternative public school . American Journal of Community Psychology, 1987, 15(3), 353-371 .
79.
HANCOCK, M. D. , LOGUE, J. , & SCHILLER, B.Managing modem capitalism: Industrial renewal and workplace democracy in the United States and Westen Europe. New York: Praeger , 1991.
80.
HARDY, C.The nature of unobtrusive power . Journal of Management Studies, 1985, 22(4), 384-399 . (a)
HARDY, C.Power and politics in organizations. In C. Hardy (Ed.). Managing strategic action: Mobilizing changeLondon: Sage , 1994.
83.
HARDY, C. , & CLEGG, S.Some dare call it power. In S. Clegg , C. Hardy , & W. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organizational studies. London: Sage , 1996.
84.
HARDY, C. , & REDIVO, F.Power and organizational development: A framework for organizational change . Journal of General Management, 1994, 20(2), 1-13 .
85.
HASSARD, J.Sociology and organization theory: Positivism, paradigms and postmodemity. London: Sage , 1993.
86.
HICKSON, D. J. , BUTLER, R. J. , CRAY, D. , MALLORY, G. R. , & WILSON, D. C.Top decisions: Strategic decision-making in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass , 1986.
87.
HICKSON, D. J. , HININGS, C. R. , LEE, C. A. , SCHNECK, R.E. , & PENNINGS, J.M.A strategic contingencies theory of intraorganizational power . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1971, 16, 216-229 .
88.
HOLLWAY, W.Work psychology and organizational behaviour: Managing the individual at work. London: Sage , 1991.
89.
HOY, D. C.Power, repression, progress: Foucault, Lukes, and the Frankfurt School. In D. C. Hoy (Ed.), Foucault: A critical readerOxford: Basil Blackwell , 1986, pp. 123-147.
90.
HUMPHREY, J. W.A time of 10,000 leaders . Executive Excellence, 1991, 8(6), 17-18 .
91.
HUNTER, D. J.Coping with uncertainty. Chichester, England: Research Studies Press , 1980.
92.
HYMAN, R. , & BROUGH, I.Social values and industrial relations. Oxford. England: Basil Blackwell , 1975.
93.
IDE INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH GROUPIndustrial democracy in Europe revisited. Oxford: Oxford University Press , 1993.
94.
IZRAELI, D. M. , & JICK, T. D.The art of saying no: Linking power to culture . Organization Studies, 1986, 7(2), 171-192 .
95.
JENCKS, C.What is post-modernism? (3rd ed., rev. enlarged). New York: Academy Editions/St. Martins Press , 1989.
96.
JERMIER, J. M. , NORD, W. R. , & KNIGHTS, D. (Eds.) 1994. Resistance and power in organizations: Agency, subjectivity and the labour process. London: Routledge , 1994.
97.
KATZ, D. , & KAHN, R. L.The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley , 1978.
98.
KELLER, T. , & DANSEREAU, F.Leadership and empowerment: A social exchange perspective . Human Relations, 1995, 48(2), 127-147 .
99.
KERFOOT D. , & KNIGHTS, D.Management, masculinity and manipulation: From paternalism to corporate strategy in financial services in Britain . Journal of Management Studies, 1993, 30(4), 659-677 .
100.
KINCHELOE, J. L. , & MCLAREN, P. L.Rethinking critical theory and qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage , 1994, pp. 138-157.
101.
KIZILOS, P.Crazy about empowerment?Training, 1990, 27(12), 47-56 .
102.
KNIGHTS, D.Changing spaces: The disruptive impact of a new epistemological location for the study of management . Academy of Management Review, 1992, 17(3), 514-536 .
103.
KNIGHTS, D. , & MORGAN, G.Strategic discourse and subjectivity: Towards a critical analysis of corporate strategy in organization . Organization Studies, 1991, 12(3), 251-273 .
104.
KNIGHTS, D. , & MORGAN, G.Strategy under the microscope: Strategic management and IT in financial services . Journal of Management Studies, 1995, 32(2), 191-214 .
105.
KNIGHTS, D. , & WILLMOTIT, H.Power, values and relations: A comment on Benton . Sociology, 1982, 16(4), 578-585 .
106.
KNIGHTS, D. , & WILLMOTIT, H.Power and subjectivity at work: From degradation to subjugation in social relations . Sociology, 1989, 23(4), 535-558 .
107.
LACLAU, E.Politics and the limits of modernity. In A. Ross (Ed.), Universal abandon: The politics of postmodernism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press , 1988.
108.
LACLAU, E. , & MOUFFE, C.Postmodernism without apologies . New Left Review, 1987, 166, 79-106 .
109.
LATHAM, G. P. , EREZ, M. , & LOCKE, E. A.Resolving scientific disputes by the joint design of crucial experiments by the antagonists: Application of the Erez-Latham dispute regarding participation in goal-setting . Journal of Applied Psychology Monograph, 1988, 73, 753-772 .
110.
LAWLER, E. E.The ultimate advantage: Creating the high-involvement organizationSan Francisco: Jossey Bass , 1992.
111.
LEANA, C. R.Power relinquishment versus power sharing: Theoretical clarification and empirical comparison of delegation and participation . Journal of Applied Psychology, 1987, 72, 228-233 .
112.
LEANA, C. R. , AHLBRANDI, R. S. , & MURREL, A. J.The effects of employee involvement on unionized workers' attitudes, perceptions, and preferences in decision making . Academy of Management Journal, 1992, 35(4), 861-873 .
113.
LEDFORD, G. E.Employee involvement: Lessons and predictions. In J. R. Galbraith , E. E. Lawler , and Associates (eds.), Organizing for the future The new logic for managing complex organizations. San Francisco: Jossey Bass , 1993.
114.
LEDFORD, G. E. , & LAWLER, E. E.Research on employee participation: Beating a dead horse?Academy of Management Review, 1994, 19(4), 633-636 .
115.
LEIBA, S. , & HARDY, C.Employee empowerment: A seductive misnomer? In C. Hardy (Ed.), Managing strategic action: Mobilizing change. London: Sage , 1994.
116.
LEVINSON, H.Men, management, and mental health. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press , 1962.
117.
LICHTENSTEIN, N. , & HOWELL, J. H.Industrial democracy in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1993.
118.
LUKES, S.Power. A radical view. London: Macmillan , 1974.
119.
MacMILLAN, I. C.Strategy foundation Political concepts. St. Paul, MN: West , 1978.
120.
MANZ, C. C.Beyond self-managing work teams: Toward self-leading teams in the workplace. In W. A. Pasmore , & R. W. Woodman (Eds.), Research in organizational change and development. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press , 1990, pp. 273-299.
121.
MARSDEN, R. , & TOWNLEY, B.The owl of Minerva: Reflections on theory in practice. In S. R. Clegg , C. Hardy & W. R. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organization studies. London: Sage , 1996, pp. 659-675.
122.
MARTIN, J.Cultures in organizations: Three perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press , 1992.
123.
McCANN, J. E. , & GALBRAITH, J. R.Interdepartmental relations. In P. C. Nystrom , & W. H. Starbuck (Eds.), Handbook of organizational design (vol. 2). New York: Oxford University Press , 1981, pp. 60-84.
124.
McKENNA, J. F.Smart scarecrows: The wizardry of empowerment . Industry Week, 1990, 239(14), 8-19 .
125.
McKENNA, J. E.America's best plants: SPX . Industry Week, 1991, 240(20), 49-50 . (a)
126.
McKENNA, J. E.Failure: Managing the last taboo . Industry Week, 1991, 240(5), 12-16 . (b)
127.
MECHANIC, D.Sources of power of lower participants in complex organizations . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1962, 7(3), 349-364 .
128.
MILLS, C. W.The power elite. New York: Oxford University Press , Norwood, NJ: Ablex , 1956.
129.
MUMBY, D. K.Two discourses on communication, power, and the subject: Jürgen Habermas and Michel Foucault. In G. Levine (Ed.), Construction of the self. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press , 1992.
130.
NARAYANAN, V K., & FAHEY, L.The micro-politics of strategy formulation . Academy of Management Review, 1982, 7(1), 25-34 .
131.
NORD, W. R. , & DOHERTY, E. M.Towards an Assertion Perspective for Empowerment: Blending Employee Rights and Labor Process Theories. Unpublished paper, College of Business Administration, University of South Florida , 1994.
132.
NORD, W. R. , & JERMIER. J. M.Critical social science for managers? Promising and perverse possibilities In M. Alvesson , & H. Willmott (Eds.), Critical management studies. London: Sage , 1992, pp. 202-222.
133.
O'CONNOR, E. S.Paradoxes of Participation: A Textual Analysis of Case Studies Documenting Employee Involvement Efforts . Paper presented at the Academy of Management, Atlanta, 1993.
134.
O'CONNOR, E. S.Paradoxes of participation: A literary analysis of case studies on employee involvement . Organization Science, 1995, 16(5), 769-804 .
135.
ODIORNE, G. S.Competence versus passion . Training and Development, 1991, 45(5), 61-64 .
136.
PARKER, M. & SLAUGHTER, J.Managing by stress: The dark side of team concept , ILR Report, 1988, 26(1), 19-23 .
137.
PARKER, M.Industrial relations myth and shop-floor reality: The “team concept: in the auto industry. In N. Lichtenstein , & J. H. Howell (Eds.), Industrial democracy in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1993.
138.
PARRY, G. , & MORRISS, P.When is a decision not a decision? In L. Crewe (Ed.), British Political Sociology Yearbook (Vol. 1). London, England: Croon Helm , 1975.
139.
PENZER, E.The power of empowerment . Incentive, 1991, 165(5), 97-98 , 138.
PFEFFER, J.Power in organizations. Marshfield, MA: Pitman , 1981.
144.
PFEFFER, J.Understanding power in organizations . California Management Review, 1992, 35, 29-50 .
145.
PFEFFER, J. , & SALANCIK, G.Organizational decision making as a political process . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1974, 19, 135-151 .
146.
POLSBY, N. W.Community power and political theory. New Haven: Yale University Press , 1963.
147.
PORTER L. W. , & LAWLER, E. E.Managerial attitudes and performance. Homewood, IL: Irwin , 1968.
148.
RANSON, S. , HININGS, C. R. , & GREENWOOD, R.The structuring of organizational structure . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1980, 25(1), 1-14 .
149.
RAPPAPORT, J.Terms of empowerment/exemplars of prevention: Toward a theory for community psychology . American Journal of Community Psychology, 1987, 15(2), 121-148 .
150.
ROBERTS, J.Strategy and accounting in a UK conglomerate . Accounting, Organizations and Society, 1991, 15(1/2), 107-126 .
151.
ROSE, S. M. , & BLACK, B. L.Advocacy and empowerment: Mental health care in the community. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul , 1985.
152.
ROSENAU, P. M.Post-modernism and the social sciences: Insights, inroads, and intrusions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press , 1992.
153.
ROUSSEAU, D. M. , & AQUINO, K.Fairness and implied contract obligations in job terminations: The role of contributions, promises and performance . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 1992, 12, 287-299 .
154.
ROUSSEAU, D. M. , & PARKS, J. M.The contracts of individuals and organizations . Research in Organizational Behavior, 1993, 15, 1-43 .
155.
SAID, E. W.Foucault and the imagination of power. In D. C. Hoy (Ed.), Foucault: A critical reader. Oxford: Basil Blackwell , 1986, pp. 149-155.
156.
SALANCIK, G. , & PFEFFER, J.The bases and use of power in organizational decision making . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1974, 19, 453-473 .
SCHAEF.FER, O.Empowerment as a business strategy . Executive Excellence, 1991, 8(10), 9-10 .
160.
SCHATTSCHNEIDER, E. E.The semi-sovereign people. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston , 1960.
161.
SCHLOSSBERG, H.Authors blast those who make excuses for poor business . Marketing News, 1991, 25(15), 5 .
162.
SCHWENK, C. R.Linking cognitive, organizational and political factors in explaining strategic change , Journal of Management Studies, 1989, 26(2), 177-188 .
163.
SCOTT W. G. , & HART D. K.Organizational America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin , 1979.
164.
SHELTON, K.People power . Executive Excellence, 1991, 8(12), 7-8 .
165.
SHERIDAN, J. N.America's best plants: Tennessee Eastman . Industry Week, 1991, 240(20), 59-60 . (a)
166.
SHERIDAN, J. N.A philosophy for commitment .Industry Week, 1991, 240(3), 11-13 . (b)
167.
SHERWOOD, J. J.Creating work cultures with competitive advantage . Organizational Dynamics, 1988, 17, 4-27 .
168.
SIMON, B. L.Rethinking empowerment . Journal of Progressive Human Sciences, 1990, 1(1), 27-37 .
169.
SKAGGS, B. C. , & LABIANCA, G.Redefining empowerment From a Management-Centered Construct to Economic Democracy . Paper presented at the Academy of Management, Atlanta, 1993.
SMARIT B.The politics of truth and the problem of hegemone. In D. C. Hoy (Ed.), Foucault A critical readerOxford: Basil Blackwell , 1986, pp. 157-173.
172.
SOLOMON, B. B.Black empowerment: Social work in oppressed communities. New York: Columbia University Press , 1976.
173.
SPENCER, B. A.Models of organization and total quality management: A comparison and critical evaluation . Academy of Management Review, 1994, 19(3), 446-471 .
174.
STEWART T. A.New ways to exercise power . Fortune, 1989, 6 November, 48-53 .
175.
STOPFORD, J. , & BADEN-FULLER, C.Corporate rejuvenation . Journal of Management Studies, 1990, 27, 399-415 .
176.
TANNENBAUM, A. S.Control in organizations. New York: McGraw Hill , 1968.
177.
TANNENBAUM, S. I. , MATHIEU, J. E. , SALAS, E. , & CANNON-BOWERS, J. A.Meeting trainees' expectations: The influence of training fulfilment on the development of commitment, self-efficacy, and motivation . Journal of Applied Psychology, 1991, 76(6), 739-769 .
178.
TAYLOR, P. V.The teas of Paulo Freire. Milton Keynes: Open University Press , 1993.
179.
THOMAS, K. W. , & VELTHOUSE, B. A.Cognitive elements of empowerment: An “interpretive” model of intrinsic task motivation . Academy of Management Review, 1990, 15(4), 666-681 .
180.
THOMPSON, J. D.Authority and power in identical organizations . American Journal of Sociology, 1956, 62, 290-301 .
181.
TOPAZ, L.Empowerment: Human resource management in the 90's . Management Quarterly, 1989/90, 30(4), 3-8 .
182.
TOWNLEY, B.Reframing human resource management: Power, ethics and the subject at work. London: Sage , 1993.
183.
TURNER, B. S.Theories of modernly and post modernity. London: Sage , 1990.
184.
VELTHOUSE, B. A.Creativity and empowerment: A complementary relationship . Review of Business, 1990, 12(2), 13-18 .
185.
VLOEBERGHS, D. , & BELLENS, J.Human resource aspects of ISO 9000 in Belgian organizations . International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1996, 7(2), 413-436 .
186.
VON der EMBSE, T. J.Transforming power into empowerment . Manage, 1989, 41(3), 25-28 .
187.
VROOM, V. H. , & JAGO, A. G.The new leadership: Managing participation in organizations. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall , 1988.
188.
VROOM, V. H.Work and motivation. New York: John Wiley , 1964.
189.
WAGNER, J. A.Participation's effects on performance and satisfaction: A reconsideration of research evidence . Academy of Management Review, 1994, 19(2), 312-330 .
190.
WALDMAN, D. A.The contributions of total quality management to a theory of work performance . Academy of Management Review, 1994, 19(3), 510-536 .
191.
WALZER, M.The politics of Michel Foucault, In D. C. Hoy (Ed.), Foucault: A critical readerOxford: Basil Blackwell , 1986, pp. 51-68.
192.
WANOUS, J. , POLAND, D. , PREMACK, S. L. , & DAVIS, K.The effects of met expectations on newcomer attitudes and behaviors: A review and meta-analysis . Journal of Applied Psychology, 1992, 77, 288-297 .
193.
WEBER, M.The theory of social and economic organization. New York: Free Press , 1947.
194.
WEISS, R. M. , & MILLER, L. E.The concept of ideology in organizational analysis: The sociology of knowledge or the social psychology of beliefs?Academy of Management Review, 1987,12(l), 104-116 .
195.
WELTER, T. R.A winning team begins with you . Industry Week1991, 240(9), 35-42 . (a)
196.
WELTER, T. R.America's best plants: Lord Corp . Industry Week1991, 240(20), 44-46 . (b)
197.
WESTLEY, F.Middle managers and strategy: The microdynamics of inclusion . Strategic Management Journal, 1990, 11, 337-351 .
198.
WHITE, S. K.Foucault's challenge to critical theory . American Political Science Review, 1986, 80(2), 419-432 .
199.
WILLMOTT, H.Strength is ignorance; slavery is freedom: Managing culture in modem organizations . Journal of Management Studies, 1993, 30(4), 515-552 .
