Game theory proposes that slack makes mean (noncooperative) games kinder (more cooperative) and kind (cooperative) games meaner (less cooperative), while scarcity produces the opposite effects. But, organizational situations generally involve mixtures of kindness (cooperation) and meanness (conflict). A 2 x 2 x 2 mixed motive decision-making experiment varied slack, certainty, and political influence. Results indicate that, when there is slack, kindness pays.
AOKI, M.The cooperative game theory of the firm. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
2.
ASTLEY, W. G. Sources of Power in Organizational Life. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Washington, 1978.
3.
BARBER, B.The logic and limits of trust. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1983.
4.
BINMORE, K.Economic organizations as games. New York: Blackwell, 1986.
5.
BOURGEOIS, L. J.On the measurement of organizational slack. Academy of Management Review, 1981, 6, 29-39.
6.
BOURGEOIS, L. J., & SINGH, J. V.Organizational slack and political behavior among top management teams. Proceedings of the Academy of Management, 1983, 43-47.
7.
CHAKRAVARTHY, B. S.Adaptation: A promising metaphor for strategic management. Academy of Management Review, 1982, 7, 35-44.
8.
CHENG, J. L. C., & KESNER, I. F.Responsiveness to environmental change: Interactive effects of organizational slack and strategic orientation. Proceedings of the Academy of Management, 1988, 165-169.
9.
CHRISTIE, R., & GEIS, F. L.Studies in Machiavellianism. New York: Academic Press, 1970.
10.
CYERT, R. M., & MARCH, J. G.A behavioral theory of the firm. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963.
11.
DAFT, R. L.Organization theory and design. St. Paul, MN: West, 1986.
12.
DESS, G. G., & BEARD, D. W.Dimensions of organizational task environments. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1984, 29, 52-73.
13.
FREDRICKSON, J. W.Effects of decision motive and organizational performance level on strategic decision processes. Academy of Management Journal, 1985, 28, 821-843.
14.
FRIEDMAN, J. W.Game theory with applications to economics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
15.
GOODIN, R. E.Some new sources of social conflict: transformations of mixed motive games. British Journal of Sociology, 1988, 39, 441-451.
16.
GUPTA, A. K., & GOVINDARAJAN, V.Business unit strategy, managerial characteristics, and business unit effectiveness at strategy implementation. Academy of Management JoumaI, 1984, 27, 25-41.
17.
KIPNIS, D., SCHMIDT, S. M., & WILKINSON, I.Intraorganizational influence tactics: Explorations in getting one's way. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1980, 65, 440-452.
18.
KOGAN, N., & WALLACH, M. A.Risk taking: A study in cognition and personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1964.
19.
LINDBLOM, C. E.Still muddling, not yet through. Public Administration Review, 1979, 39, 517-526.
MILES, R. E., SNOW, C. C., & PFEFFER, J.Organization-environment: Concepts and issues. Industrial Relations, 1974, 13, 244-264.
22.
MILLER, D., KETS DE VRIES, M. F. R., & TOULOUSE, J. M.Top executive locus of control and its relationship to strategy-making, structure, and environment. Academy of Management Journal, 1982, 25, 237-253.
23.
MOCH, M. K., & PONDY, L. R.The structure of chaos: Organized anarchy as a response to ambiguity. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1977, 22, 351-362.
24.
NARAYANAN, V. K., & FAHEY, L.The micro-politics of strategy formulation. Academy of Management Review, 1982, 7, 25-34.
25.
PFEFFER, J.Power in organizations. Marshfield, MA: Pitman, 1981.
26.
PFEFFER, J., & MOORE, W. L.Power in university budgeting: A replication and extension. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1980, 25, 637-653.
27.
ROTTER, J. B.Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 1966, 80, whole number 609.
28.
SCHWENK, C. R.Why sacrifice rigor for relevance? A proposal for combining laboratory and field research in strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 1982, 3, 213-225.
29.
SHUBIK, M.Game theory in the social sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982.
30.
SIMON, H. A.Administrative behavior. New York: Free Press, 1957.
31.
THOMPSON, J. D.Organizations in action. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
32.
WEICK, K. E.Laboratory experimentation in organizations. In J. G. March (Ed.), Handbook of organizations. Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1965.
33.
WILLIAMSON, O. E.The economics of discretionary behavior: Managerial objectives in a theory of the firm. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1964.
