Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2018-10
The Psychology of Recent Nature Visits: (How) Are Motives and Attentional Focus Related to Post-Visit Restorative Experiences,Creativity,and Emotional Well-Being?
The health-enhancing benefits of contact with nature have become widely recognized, but empirical studies that consider the motives and attentional focus of nature visits are lacking. These psychological qualities may partly determine why one visits natural environments and why some visits are more restorative than others. This study examined recent nature visits by Finnish survey respondents (n = 565) via exploratory structural equation modeling. In the estimated models, motives and attentional focus explained 54% to 57% of post-visit restorativeness, 22% of creativity, and 33% to 37% of emotional well-being. Of the assessed motives, stress reduction was most strongly connected to increased restorativeness and emotional well-being. The motive to be alone showed a positive indirect—but negative direct—connection to emotional well-being. In addition, focus on oneself, the activity, and the environment were positively associated with the outcomes. The results indicate that motives and attentional focus are strongly connected to the outcomes of nature visits.
AbrahamA.SommerhalderK.AbelT. (2010). Landscape and well-being: A scoping study on the health-promoting impact of outdoor environments. International Journal of Public Health, 55, 59-69. doi:10.1007/s00038-009-0069-z
AtchleyR. A.StrayerD. L.AtchleyP. (2012). Creativity in the wild: Improving creative reasoning through immersion in natural settings. PLoS ONE, 7, e51474.
4.
BaasM.De DreuC. K. W.NijstadB. A. (2008). A meta-analysis of 25 years of mood-creativity research: Hedonic tone, activation, or regulatory focus?Psychological Bulletin, 134, 779-806. doi:10.1037/a0012815
5.
BalcetisE.DunningD. (2006). See what you want to see: Motivational influences on visual perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 612-625. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.612
6.
BalcetisE.DunningD. (2007). Cognitive dissonance and the perception of natural environments. Psychological Science, 18, 917-921. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02000.x
7.
BarghJ. A.ChartrandT. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 462-479.
8.
BartonJ.PrettyJ. (2010). What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 44, 3947-3955. doi:10.1021/es903183r
9.
BermanM. G.JonidesJ.KaplanS. (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychological Science, 19, 1207-1212. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02225.x
10.
BertoR. (2005). Exposure to restorative environments helps restore attentional capacity. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25, 249-259. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.07.001
11.
BollenK. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: Wiley.
12.
BollenK. A.StineR. (1990). Direct and indirect effects: Classical and bootstrap estimates of variability. Sociological Methodology, 20, 15-140.
13.
BorrieW. T.RoggenbuckJ. W. (2001). The dynamic, emergent, and multi-phasic nature of on-site wilderness experiences. Journal of Leisure Research, 33, 202-228.
14.
BowlerD. E.Buyung-AliL.KnightT. M.PullinA. S. (2010). A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC Public Health, 10, 456-465. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-456
15.
BratmanG. N.HamiltonJ. P.DailyG. C. (2012). The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1249, 118-136. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06400.x
16.
BratmanG. N.HamiltonJ. P.HahnK. S.DailyG. C.GrossJ. J. (2015). Nature experience reduces rumination and subgenual prefrontal cortex activation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 8567-8572. doi:10.1073/pnas.1510459112
DuvallJ. (2011). Enhancing the benefits of outdoor walking with cognitive engagement strategies. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31, 27-35. doi:10.1080/02699930441000238
19.
DuvallJ. (2013). Using engagement-based strategies to alter perceptions of the walking environment. Environment and Behavior, 45, 303-322. doi:10.1177/0013916511423808
20.
ErdelyiM. H. (1974). A new look at the new look: Perceptual defense and vigilance. Psychological Review, 81, 1-25.
21.
FairchildA. J.MacKinnonD. P.TaborgaM. P.TaylorA. B. (2009). R2 effect-size measures for mediation analysis. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 486-498. doi:10.3758/BRM.41.2.486
22.
FanY.DasK. V.ChenQ. (2011). Neighborhood green, social support, physical activity, and stress: Assessing the cumulative impact. Health & Place, 17, 1202-1211. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2011.08.008
23.
FerraroF. M.III. (2015). Enhancement of convergent creativity following a multiday wilderness experience. Ecopsychology, 7, 7-11.
24.
FredricksonB. L.BraniganC. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 313-332. doi:10.1080/02699930441000238
25.
GrossJ. J.JohnO. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348-362. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
26.
HartigT.LindblomK.OvefeltK. (1998). The home and near-home area offer restoration opportunities differentiated by gender. Scandinavian Housing and Planning Research, 15, 283-296.
27.
HartigT.MitchellR.de VriesS.FrumkinH. (2014). Nature and health. Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 207-228. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182443
28.
HaydukL.LittvayL. (2012). Should researchers use single indicators, best indicators, or multiple indicators in structural equation models?BMC Medical Research Methodology, 12, 159.
29.
HerzogT. R.BlackA. M.FountaineK. A.KnottsD. J. (1997). Reflection and attentional recovery as distinctive benefits of restorative environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17, 165-170.
30.
IrvineK.WarberS.Devine-WrightP.GastonK. (2013). Understanding urban green space as a health resource: A qualitative comparison of visit motivation and derived effects among park users in Sheffield, UK. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10, 417-442. doi:10.3390/ijerph10010417
31.
IttelsonW. H.FranckK. A.O’HanlonT. J. (1976). The nature of environmental experience. In WapnerS.CohenS. B.KaplanB. (Eds.), Experiencing the environment (pp. 187-206). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
32.
JohanssonM.HartigT.StaatsH. (2011). Psychological benefits of walking: Moderation by company and outdoor environment. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3, 261-280. doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2011.01051.x
33.
KaplanR.KaplanS. (1989). The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
34.
KaplanS. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169-182. doi:10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2
35.
KassavouA.FrenchD. P.ChamberlainK. (2015). How do environmental factors influence walking in groups? A walk-along study. Journal of Health Psychology, 20, 1328-1339. doi:10.1177/1359105313511839
36.
KenigerL. E.GastonK. J.IrvineK. N.FullerR. A. (2013). What are the benefits of interacting with nature?International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10, 913-935. doi:10.3390/ijerph10030913
37.
KlineR. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
38.
KnopfR. C. (1987). Human behavior, cognition, and affect in the natural environment. In StokolsD.AltmanI. (Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 783-825). New York, NY: Wiley.
39.
KorpelaK. M.BorodulinK.NeuvonenM.ParonenO.TyrväinenL. (2014). Analyzing the mediators between nature-based outdoor recreation and emotional well-being. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 37, 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.11.003
40.
KorpelaK. M.YlénM. (2007). Perceived health is associated with visiting natural favourite places in the vicinity. Health & Place, 13, 138-151.
41.
KorpelaK. M.YlénM.TyrväinenL.SilvennoinenH. (2008). Determinants of restorative experiences in everyday favorite places. Health & Place, 14, 636-652. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2007.10.008
42.
KuoM. (2015). How might contact with nature promote human health? Promising mechanisms and a possible central pathway. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1093. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01093
43.
LinB. B.FullerR. A.BushR.GastonK. J.ShanahanD. F. (2014). Opportunity or orientation? Who uses urban parks and why. PLoS ONE, 9, e87422. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087422
44.
LinY.TsaiC.SullivanW. C.ChangP.ChangC. (2014). Does awareness effect the restorative function and perception of street trees?Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 906. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00906
45.
LindzeyG.GilbertD.FiskeS. T. (1998). The handbook of social psychology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
46.
LupyanG. (2015). Object knowledge changes visual appearance: Semantic effects on color afterimages. Acta Psychologica, 161, 117-130. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.08.006
47.
ManningR. E. (2010). Studies in outdoor recreation. Search and research for satisfaction (3rd ed.). Corvallis: Oregon State University Press.
48.
MarshH. W.LüdtkeO.NagengastB.MorinA. J.Von DavierM. (2013). Why item parcels are (almost) never appropriate: Two wrongs do not make a right—Camouflaging misspecification with item parcels in CFA models. Psychological Methods, 18, 257-284. doi:10.1037/a0032773
49.
MayerF. S.FrantzC. M.Bruehlman-SenecalE.DolliverK. (2009). Why is nature beneficial? The role of connectedness to nature. Environment and Behavior, 41, 607-643. doi:10.1177/0013916508319745
50.
McIntyreN.RoggenbuckJ. (1998). Nature/person transactions during an outdoor adventure experience: A multi-phasic analysis. Journal of Leisure Research, 30, 401-422.
51.
McKayA. D.BrownleeM. T. J.HalloJ. C. (2012). Changes in visitors’ environmental focus during an appreciative recreation experience. Journal of Leisure Research, 44, 179-200.
52.
McMahanE. A.EstesD. (2015). The effect of contact with natural environments on positive and negative affect: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10, 507-519. doi:10.1080/17439760.2014.994224
53.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (1998-2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Author.
54.
PenedoF. J.DahnJ. R. (2005). Exercise and well-being: A review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18, 189-193.
55.
PlambechT.Konijnendijk van den BoschC. C. (2015). The impact of nature on creativity—A study among Danish creative professionals. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 14, 255-263. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2015.02.006
56.
PreacherK. J.KelleyK. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16, 93-115. doi:10.1037/a0022658
57.
RyanR. M.FrederickC. (1997). On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529-565. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.ep9710314567
58.
RyanR. M.WeinsteinN.BernsteinJ.BrownK. W.MistrettaL.GagnéM. (2010). Vitalizing effects of being outdoors and in nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, 159-168. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.10.009
59.
SievänenT.NeuvonenM. (2011). Luonnon virkistyskäytön kysyntä 2010 ja kysynnän muutos [Outdoor recreation demand 2010 and changes in the demand]. In SievänenT.NeuvonenM. (Eds.), Luonnon virkistyskäyttö 2010 [Outdoor recreation 2010] (pp. 37-73, Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research Institute No. 212). Vantaa, Finland: Metsäntutkimuslaitos.
60.
SiniscalchiJ. M.KimmelK. D.CouturierL. E.MurrayR. (2011). Stress management and the motives of restorative events at the United States Coast Guard Academy. Military Psychology, 23, 332-349. doi:10.1080/08995605.2011.570601
61.
SobelM. E. (1986). Some new results on indirect effects and their standard errors in covariance structure models. Sociological Methodology, 16, 159-186.
62.
StaatsH.HartigT. (2004). Alone or with a friend: A social context for psychological restoration and environmental preferences. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24, 199-211. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2003.12.005
63.
StaatsH.KievietA.HartigT. (2003). Where to recover from attentional fatigue: An expectancy-value analysis of environmental preference. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 147-157.
64.
StewartW. P.HullR. B. (1996). Capturing the moments: Concerns of in situ leisure research. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 5, 3-20.
65.
StigsdotterU. K.GrahnP. (2011). Stressed individuals’ preferences for activities and environmental characteristics in green spaces. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 10, 295-304. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2011.07.001
66.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston MA: Pearson Education.
67.
Thompson CoonJ.BoddyK.SteinK.WhearR.BartonJ.DepledgeM. H. (2011). Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1761-1772. doi:10.1021/es102947t
68.
UlrichR. S. (1983). Aesthetic and affective response to natural environment. Human Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research, 6, 85-125.
69.
UlrichR. S.SimonsR. F.LositoB. D.FioritoE.MilesM. A.ZelsonM. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, 201-230. doi:10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80184-7
70.
VemuriA. W.Morgan GroveJ.WilsonM. A.BurchW. R. (2011). A tale of two scales: Evaluating the relationship among life satisfaction, social capital, income, and the natural environment at individual and neighborhood levels in metropolitan Baltimore. Environment and Behavior, 43, 3-25. doi:10.1177/0013916509338551
71.
VossA.SchwierenC. (2015). The dynamics of motivated perception: Effects of control and status on the perception of ambivalent stimuli. Cognition and Emotion, 29, 1411-1423. doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.984660
72.
WhiteM. P.PahlS.AshbullbyK.HerbertS.DepledgeM. H. (2013). Feelings of restoration from recent nature visits. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 35, 40-51. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.04.002
73.
WirtzD.KrugerJ.Napa ScollonC.DienerE. (2003). What to do on spring break? The role of predicted, on-line, and remembered experience in future choice. Psychological Science, 14, 520-524. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.03455
74.
YuanK.ChanW. (2011). Biases and standard errors of standardized regression coefficients. Psychometrika, 76, 670-690. doi:10.1007/S11336-011-9224-6
75.
ZelenskiJ. M.LarsenR. J. (2000). The distribution of basic emotions in everyday life: A state and trait perspective from experience sampling data. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 178-197. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1999.2275
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
