Research on precarious work and its consequences overwhelmingly focuses on the economic dimension of precarity, epitomized by low wages. But the rise in precarious work also involves a major shift in its temporal dimension, such that many workers now experience routine instability in their work schedules. This temporal instability represents a fundamental and under-appreciated manifestation of the risk shift from firms to workers. A lack of suitable existing data, however, has precluded investigation of how precarious scheduling practices affect workers’ health and well-being. We use an innovative approach to collect survey data from a large and strategically selected segment of the U.S. workforce: hourly workers in the service sector. These data reveal that exposure to routine instability in work schedules is associated with psychological distress, poor sleep quality, and unhappiness. Low wages are also associated with these outcomes, but unstable and unpredictable schedules are much more strongly associated. Precarious schedules affect worker well-being in part through the mediating influence of household economic insecurity, yet a much larger proportion of the association is driven by work-life conflict. The temporal dimension of work is central to the experience of precarity and an important social determinant of well-being.
AdamBarbara. 1990. Time and Social Theory. New York: Polity Press.
2.
Ala-MursulaLeenaVahteraJussiKivimakiMikaKevinM.PenttiJaana. 2002. “Employee Control over Working Times: Associations with Health and Sickness Absences.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health56(4):272–78.
3.
AllenTammy D.ArmstrongJeremy. 2006. “Further Examination of the Link between Work-Family Conflict and Health: The Role of Health-Related Behaviors.” American Behavioral Scientist49(9):1204–21.
AppelbaumEllenBernhardtAnnetteMurnaneRichard, eds. 2003. Low-Wage America: How Employers Are Reshaping Opportunity in the Workplace. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
6.
AverettSusanSmithJulieWangYang. 2017. “The Effects of Minimum Wages on the Health of Working Teenagers.” Applied Economics Letters24(16):1127–30.
7.
BaraAna-ClaudiaArberSara. 2009. “Working Shifts and Mental Health: Findings from the British Household Panel Survey (1995–2005).” Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health35(5):361–67.
8.
BárányZsófia L. 2016. “The Minimum Wage and Inequality: The Effects of Education and Technology.” Journal of Labor Economics34(1):237–74.
9.
BaronReubenKennyDavid. 1986. “The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology51(6):1173–82.
10.
BartelsLarry. 2016. Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
11.
BenachJoanVivesAlejandraAmableMarceloVanroelenChristopheTarafaG.MuntanerC.2014. “Precarious Employment: Understanding an Emerging Social Determinant of Health.” Annual Review of Public Health35:229–53.
12.
Ben-IshaiLiz.2015. “Volatile Job Schedules and Access to Public Benefits” Center for Law and Social Policy, Research Brief.
13.
BernhardtAnnette. 2012. “The Role of Labor Market Regulation in Rebuilding Economic Opportunity in the United States.” Work & Occupations39(4):354–75.
14.
BeverlySandra. 2001. “Measures of Material Hardship: Rationale and Recommendations.” Journal of Poverty5(1):23–41.
15.
BhuttaChristine. 2012. “Not by the Book: Facebook as a Sampling Frame.” Sociological Methods & Research41(1):57–88.
16.
BirnbaumMichael. 2004. “Human Research and Data Collection via the Internet.” Annual Review of Psychology55(1):803–32.
17.
BlossfieldHans-PeterKlijzingErikMillsMelindaKurzKarin. 2005. Globalization, Uncertainty and Youth in Society. London, UK: Routledge.
18.
BreenRichard. 1997. “Risk, Recommodification and Stratification.” Sociology31(3):473–89.
CappelliPeter. 1999. The New Deal at Work: Managing the Market-Driven Workforce. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press.
21.
CardDavidKruegerAlan B.1995. Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
22.
CarrilloDaniHarknettKristenLoganAllisonLuhrSigridSchneiderDaniel. 2017. “Instability of Work and Care: How Work Schedules Shape Child-Care Arrangements for Parents Working in the Service Sector.” Social Service Review91(3):422–55.
23.
CarréFrançoiseTillyChristopher. 2018. Where Bad Jobs Are Better: Retail Jobs Across Countries and Companies. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.
24.
CaseAnneDeatonAngus. 2015. “Rising Morbidity and Mortality in Midlife among White Non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st Century.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences112(49):15078–83.
25.
CengizDorukDubeArindrajitLindnerAttilaZipperer.Ben2017. “The Effect of Minimum Wages on the Total Number of Jobs: Evidence from the United States Using a Bunching Estimator.” LSE Center for Economic Performance Discussion Paper1531.
26.
ChoYoungmin. 2017. “The Effects of Nonstandard Work Schedules on Workers’ Health: A Mediating Role of Work-to-Family Conflict.” International Journal of Social Welfare27(1):74–87.
27.
ChristianLeahKeeterScottPurcellKristenSmithAaron. 2010. “Assessing the Cell Phone Challenge.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
28.
CiabattariTeresa. 2007. “Single Mothers, Social Capital, and Work-Family Conflict.” Journal of Family Issues28(1):34–60.
29.
ClawsonDanGerstelNaomi. 2015. Unequal Time: Gender, Class, and Family in Employment Schedules. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
30.
CollaCarrieDowWilliamDubeArindrajitLovellVicky. 2014. “Early Effects of the San Francisco Paid Sick Leave Policy.” American Journal of Public Health104(12):2453–60.
31.
CooperDavid. 2017. “Raising the Minimum Wage to $15 by 2024 Would Lift Wages for 41 Million American Workers.” Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
32.
CostaGiovanni. 2003. “Shift Work and Occupational Medicine: An Overview.” Occupational Medicine53(2):83–88.
33.
CouperMick. 2011. “The Future of Modes of Data Collection.” Public Opinion Quarterly75(5):889–908.
34.
DubeArindrajitLesterT. WilliamReichMichael. 2010. “Minimum Wage Effects across State Borders: Estimates Using Contiguous Counties.” Review of Economics and Statistics92(4):945–64.
35.
DuncanGregMurnaneRichard. 2011. Whither Opportunity: Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.
36.
EnchauteguiMariaJohnsonMarthaGelattJulia. 2015. “Who Minds the Kids When Mom Works a Nonstandard Schedule?”Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
37.
Federal Reserve Bank Board of Governors. 2014. “Report on the Economic Well-Being of U.S. Households in 2013.” Washington, DC: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
38.
Federal Reserve Bank Board of Governors. 2018. “Report on the Economic Well-Being of U.S. Households in 2017.” Washington, DC: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
39.
FenwickRudyTausigMark. 2001. “Scheduling Stress: Family and Health Outcomes of Shift Work and Schedule Control.” American Behavioral Scientist44(7):1179–98.
40.
FenwickRudyTausigMark. 2004. “The Health and Family-Social Consequences of Shift Work and Schedule Control: 1977 and 1997.” Pp. 77–110 in Fighting For Time: Shifting Boundaries of Work and Social Life, edited by EpsteinC. F.KallebergA. L.New York: Russell Sage.
41.
FigartDeborah M.2017. “Contesting the Gig Economy: #SchedulesThatWork.” Pp. 43–57 in Stories of Progressive Institutional Change. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
42.
FlavinPatrickShufeldtGregory. 2016. “Minimum Wage Increases and Workers’ Well-Being.” Working Paper, Baylor University, Waco, TX.
43.
FligsteinNeil. 1990. The Transformation of Corporate Control. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
44.
FligsteinNeil. 2001. The Architecture of Markets: An Economic Sociology of Twenty-First-Century Capitalist Societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
45.
FligsteinNeilShinTaek-Jin. 2004. “The Shareholder Value Society: A Review of the Changes in Working Conditions and Inequality in the United States, 1976 to 2000.” Pp. 401–32 in Social Inequality, edited by NeckermanK.New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.
46.
FradeCarlosDarmonIsabelleLaparraMiguel. 2004. Precarious Employment in Europe: A Comparative Study of Labour Market Related Risk in Flexible Economies. Final Report. ESPOE Project.
47.
Fuchs EpsteinCynthiaKallebergArne. 2001. “Time and the Sociology of Work: Issues and Implications.” Work and Occupations28(1):5–16.
48.
GalinskyEllenSakaiKellyWigtonTyler. 2011. “Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action.” Future of Children21(2):141–61.
49.
GoelShiradObengAdamRothschildDavid. 2017. “Online, Opt-in Surveys: Fast and Cheap, but Are They Accurate?” Working Paper, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
50.
GoldenLonnie. 2001. “Flexible Work Schedules: What Are We Trading Off to Get Them?”Monthly Labor Review124(3):50–67.
51.
GoldenLonnie.2015. “Irregular Work Scheduling and Its Consequences.” Briefing Paper #394, Economic Policy Institute, Washington, DC.
52.
GreenhausJeffreyBeutellNicholas. 1985. “Sources of Conflict between Work and Family Roles.” Academy of Management Review10(1):76–88.
53.
GreenwoodShannonPerrinAndrewDugganMaeve. 2016. “Social Media Update.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
54.
GrovesRobert. 2011. “Three Eras of Survey Research.” Public Opinion Quarterly75(5):861.
55.
HackerJacob. 2006. The Great Risk Shift: The New Economic Insecurity and the Decline of the American Dream. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
56.
Haley-LockAnna. 2011. “Place-Bound Jobs at the Intersection of Policy and Management: Comparing Employer Practices in US and Canadian Chain Restaurants.” American Behavioral Scientist55(7):823–42.
57.
HalpinBrian W.2015. “Subject to Change without Notice: Mock Schedules and Flexible Employment in the United States.” Social Problems62(3)419–38.
58.
HalpinBrian W.SmithVicki. 2017. “Employment Management Work: A Case Study and Theoretical Framework.” Work and Occupations44(4):339–75.
59.
HenagerRobinWilmarthMelissa. 2018. “The Relationship between Student Loan Debt and Financial Wellness.” Family and Consumer Sciences46(4):381–95.
60.
HenlyJulia R.LambertSusan J.2014a. “Unpredictable Work Timing in Retail Jobs: Implications for Employee Work-Life Conflict.” Industrial & Labor Relations Review67(3):986–1016.
61.
HenlyJulia R.LambertSusan J.2014b. “Measuring Precarious Work Schedules.” EINet Working Paper, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL.
62.
HenlyJulia R.ShaeferH. LukeWaxmanEllen. 2006. “Nonstandard Work Schedules: Employer- and Employee-Driven Flexibility in Retail Jobs.” Social Service Review80(4):609–34.
HousemanSusan. 2001. “Why Employers Use Flexible Staffing Arrangements: Evidence from an Establishment Survey.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review55(1):149–70.
65.
HoynesHilary. 2017. “The Earned Income Tax Credit: A Key Policy to Support Families Facing Wage Stagnation.” IRLE Policy Brief, UC-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA.
66.
IRLE (Institute for Research on Labor and Employment).2018. “Inventory of US City and County Minimum Wage Ordinances.” UC-Berkeley, IRLE, Labor Center, Berkeley, CA.
67.
JacobySanford. 2001. “Risk and the Labor Market.” Pp. 31–60 in Sourcebook of Labor Markets: Plenum Studies in Work and Industry, edited by BergI.KallebergA. L.Boston, MA: Springer.
68.
KallebergArne. 2009. “Precarious Work, Insecure Workers: Employment Relations in Transition.” American Sociological Review74(1):1–22.
69.
KallebergArne. 2011. Good Jobs, Bad Jobs: The Rise of Polarized and Precarious Employment Systems in the United States, 1970s to 2000s. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
70.
KallebergArne. 2018. Precarious Lives: Job Insecurity and Wellbeing in Rich Democracies. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
71.
KantorJodi. 2014. “Working Anything but 9 to 5.” The New York Times, August 13.
72.
KeeterScottHatleyNickKennedyCourtneyLauArnold. 2017. “What Low Response Rates Mean for Telephone Surveys.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
73.
KellyErin L.MoenPhyllis. 2007. “Rethinking the Clock Work of Work: Why Schedule Control May Pay Off at Work and at Home.” Advances in Developing Human Resources9(4):487–506.
74.
KellyErin L.MoenPhyllisFanWenOakesJ. MichaelOkechukwuCassandraDavisKellyHammerLeslieKossekEllenKingRosalind B.HansonGingerMierzwaFrankCasperLynne. 2014. “Changing Work and Work-Family Conflict: Evidence from the Work, Family, and Health Network.” American Sociological Review79(3):485–516.
75.
KellyErin L.MoenPhyllisTranbyEric. 2011. “Changing Workplaces to Reduce Work-Family Conflict: Schedule Control in a White-Collar Organization.” American Sociological Review76(2):265–90.
76.
KnutssonAnders. 2003. “Health Disorders of Shift Workers.” Occupational Medicine53(2):103–08.
77.
KurokiMasanori. 2018. “Subjective Well-Being and Minimum Wages: Evidence from U.S. States.” Health Economics27(2):e171–e180.
78.
LambertSusan. 2008. “Passing the Buck: Labor Flexibility Practices That Transfer Risk onto Hourly Workers.” Human Relations61(9):1203–27.
79.
LambertSusanFugielPeterHenlyJulia. 2014. “Precarious Work Schedules among Early-Career Employees in the US: A National Snapshot.” Research brief, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL.
80.
LeeteLauraBaniaNeil. 2010. “The Effect of Income Shocks on Food Insufficiency.” Review of Economics of the Household8(4):505–26.
81.
LuceStephanieHammondSashaSipeDarrah. 2014. “Short Shifted.” New York: Retail Action Project and CUNY.
82.
LusardiAnnamariaSchneiderDanielTufanoPeter. 2011. “Financially Fragile Households: Evidence and Implications.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity Spring:83–134.
83.
MacEachenEllenPolzerJessicaClarkeJudy. 2008. “‘You Are Free to Set Your Own Hours’: Governing Worker Productivity and Health Through Flexibility and Resilience.” Social Science & Medicine66(5):1019–33.
84.
MacKinnonDavid. 2008. Introduction to Statistical Mediation Analysis. New York: Routledge.
85.
MarmotMichael G.BosmaHansHemingwayHarryBrunnerEricStansfeldStephen. 1997. “Contribution of Job Control and Other Risk Factors to Social Variations in Coronary Heart Disease Incidence.” Lancet350(9073):235–39.
86.
MasAlexandrePallaisAmanda. 2017. “Valuing Alternative Work Arrangements.” American Economic Review107(12):3722–59.
87.
MaumeDavid J.SebastianRachel A.BardoAnthony R.2009. “Gender Differences in Sleep Disruption among Retail Food Workers.” American Sociological Review74(6):989–1007.
88.
MayerSusan E.JencksChristopher. 1989. “Poverty and the Distribution of Material Hardship.” Journal of Human Resources24(1):88–114.
89.
MilkmanRuthAppelbaumEileen. 2013. Unfinished Business: Paid Family Leave in California and the Future of Work-Family Policy. New York: Cornell University Press.
90.
MishelLawrenceGouldEliseBivensJosh. 2015. “Wage Stagnation in Nine Charts.” Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
91.
MoenPhyllisKellyErinLeeShi-RongAlmeidaDavidKossekEllenBuxtonOrfeu. 2016. “Does a Flexibility/Support Organizational Initiative Improve High-Tech Employees’ Well-Being? Evidence from the Work, Family, and Health Network.” American Sociological Review81(1):134–64.
92.
MogilnerCassieWhillansAshleyNortonMichael I.2018. “Time, Money, and Subjective Wellbeing.” In Handbook of Well-Being, edited by DienerE.OishiS.TayL. Noba Scholar Handbook Series: Subjective Well-Being. Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Publishers.
93.
MontezJennifer KarasBerkmanLisa. 2014. “Trends in the Educational Gradient of Mortality among US Adults Aged 45 to 84 Years: Bringing Regional Context into the Explanation.” American Journal of Public Health104(1):e82–e90.
MorsyLeilaRothsteinRichard. 2015. “Parents’ Non-Standard Work Schedules Make Adequate Childrearing Difficult.” Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
96.
MullinixKevinLeeperThomasDruckmanJamesFreeseJeremy. 2015. “The Generalizability of Survey Experiments.” Journal of Experimental Political Science2(2):109–38.
NetemeyerRichard G.BolesJames S.McMurrianRobert. 1996. “Development and Validation of Work-Family Conflict and Family-Work Conflict Scales.” Journal of Applied Psychology81(4):400–410.
100.
NeumarkDavidWascherWilliam. 2007. “Minimum Wages and Employment.” Foundations and Trends in Microeconomics3(1–2):1–182.
NomaguchiKeiJohnsonWendi. 2014. “Parenting Stress among Low-Income and Working-Class Fathers.” Journal of Family Issues37(11):1535–57.
103.
O’CarrollAileen. 2015. Working Time, Knowledge Work and Post-Industrial Society: Unpredictable Work. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
104.
OlsonRyanCrainToriBodnerToddKingRosalindHammerLeslieKleinLauraEriksonLeslieMoenPhyllisBerkmanLisaBuxtonOrfeu. 2015. “A Workplace Intervention Improves Sleep: Results from the Randomized Controlled Work, Family & Health Study.” Sleep Health1(1):55–65.
105.
OstermanPaulShulmanBeth. 2011. Good Jobs America: Making Work Better for Everyone. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.
PresserHarriet. 1999. “Toward a 24-Hour Economy.” Science284(5421):1778–79.
108.
PresserHarriet. 2003. Working in a 24/7 Economy. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
109.
ProchaskaJudithSungHai-YenMaxWendyShiYanlingOngMichael. 2012. “Validity Study of the K6 Scale as a Measure of Moderate Mental Distress Based on Mental Health Treatment Need and Utilization.” International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research21(2):88–97.
110.
PughAllison J.2015. The Tumbleweed Society: Working and Caring in an Age of Insecurity. New York: Oxford University Press.
111.
PughAllison J., ed. 2016. Beyond the Cubicle: Job Insecurity, Intimacy and the Flexible Self. New York: Oxford University Press.
112.
RajaratnamShanthaArendtJosephine. 2001. “Health in a 24-h Society.” The Lancet358:999–1005.
113.
ReevesAaronMcKeeMartinMackenbachJohanWhiteheadMargaretStucklerDavid. 2017. “Introduction of a National Minimum Wage Reduced Depressive Symptoms in Low-Wage Workers: A Quasi-Natural Experiment in the UK.” Health Economics26(5):639–55.
114.
ReichMichaelJacobsKenDeitzMiranda. 2014. When Mandates Work: Raising Labor Standards at the Local Level. Berkeley: University of California Press.
115.
ReyesJuliana Feliciano. 2018. “Philadelphia Could Become the Next City to Pass a Scheduling Law for Retail and Fast-Food Companies.” Philadelphia Inquirer, June 14.
116.
RodgersGerryRodgersJanine. 1989. Precarious Jobs in Labour Market Regulation: The Growth of Atypical Employment in Western Europe. International Institute for Labour Studies, Free University of Brussels.
117.
RuberyJillWardKevinGrimshawDamianBeynonHuw. 2005. “Working Time, Industrial Relations and the Employment Relationship.” Time & Society14(1):89–111.
SassonIsaac. 2016. “Trends in Life Expectancy and Lifespan Variation by Educational Attainment: United States, 1990–2010.” Demography53(2):269–93.
120.
SchiemanScottMilkieMelissa A.GlavinPaul. 2009. “When Work Interferes with Life: The Social Distribution of Work-Nonwork Interference and the Influence of Work-Related Demands and Resources.” American Sociological Review74(6):966–87.
121.
SchiemanScottYoungMarisa. 2010. “Is There a Downside to Schedule Control for the Work-Family Interface?”Journal of Family Issues31(10):1391–414.
122.
SchmittJohn. 2013. “Why Does the Minimum Wage Have No Discernible Effect on Employment?” Working Paper, Center for Economic and Policy Research, Washington, DC.
123.
SchneiderDanielHarknettKristen. 2018. “What’s to Like? Facebook as a Tool for Data Collection.” Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America.
124.
SchulteBrigid. 2014. Overwhelmed: How to Work, Love, and Play When No One Has the Time. New York: Picador.
125.
SkitkaLindaSargisEdward. 2006. “The Internet as Psychological Laboratory.” Annual Review of Psychology57(1):529–55.
126.
SmithTom. 2013. “Survey-Research Paradigms Old and New.” International Journal of Public Opinion Research25(2):218–29.
127.
SnyderBen. 2016. The Disrupted Workplace: Time and the Moral Order of Flexible Capitalism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
128.
StegmanMichael. 2007. “Payday Lending.” Journal of Economic Perspectives21(1):169–90.
129.
TheodosBrettKalishEmmaMcKernanSigne-MaryRatcliffeCaroline. 2014. “Do Financial Knowledge, Behavior, and Well-Being Differ by Gender?”Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
130.
ThompsonEdward P.1967. “Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism.” Past & Present38(December):56–97.
131.
TillyChris. 2005. “Living Wage Laws in the United States: The Dynamics of a Growing Movement.” Pp. 143–60 in Economic and Political Contention in Comparative Perspective, edited by KousisM.TillyC.New York: Paradigm Publishers.
132.
VogelMatthiasBraungardtTanjaMeyerWolfgangSchneiderWolfgang. 2012. “The Effects of Shift Work on Physical and Mental Health.” Journal of Neural Transmission119(10):1121–32.
133.
VoskoLeah. 2006. Precarious Employment: Understanding Labour Market Insecurity in Canada. Montreal, Canada: McGill University Press.
134.
VoskoLeahMacDonaldMarthaCampbellIain. 2009. Gender and the Contours of Precarious Employment. London, UK: Routledge.
135.
WangWeiRothschildDavidGoelShiradGelmanAndrew. 2015. “Forecasting Elections with Non-representative Polls.” International Journal of Forecasting31(3):980–91.
136.
WeissmanJudithPrattLaura A.MillerEric A.ParkerJennifer D.2015. “Serious Psychological Distress among Adults: United States, 2009–2013.” NCHS Data Brief No. 203. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
137.
WhillansAshleyDunnElizabethSmeetsPaulBekkersReneNortonMichael. 2017. “Buying Time Promotes Happiness.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences114(32):8523–7.
138.
WightVanesaRaleySaraBianchiSusan. 2008. “Time for Children, One’s Spouse and Oneself among Parents Who Work Nonstandard Hours.” Social Forces87(1):243–71.
139.
WolfeJuliaJonesJanelleCooperDavid. 2018. “‘Fair Workweek’ Laws Help More than 1.8 Million Workers.” Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute report.
140.
ZagheniEmilioWeberIngmar. 2015. “Demographic Research with Non-representative Internet Data.” International Journal of Manpower36(1):13–25.
141.
ZajacovaAnnaMontezJennifer Karas. 2017. “Physical Functioning Trends among US Women and Men Age 45–64 by Education Level.” Biodemography and Social Biology63(1):21–30.
142.
ZerubavelEviatar. 1981. Hidden Rhythms: Schedules and Calendars in Social Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
143.
ZeytinogluIsik U.LillevikWaheedaSeatonM. BiancaMoruzJosefina. 2004. “Part-Time and Casual Work in Retail Trade: Stress and Other Factors Affecting the Workplace.” Relations Industrielles59(3):516–42.
144.
ZhangBaobaoMildenbergerMattoHowePeter D.MarlonJenniferRosenthalSethLeiserowitzAnthony. 2017. “Quota Sampling Using Facebook Advertisements Can Generate Nationally Representative Opinion Estimates.” Working Paper, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
