Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

The connection between video games and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields has become a key focus for education and game scholars alike. While games may have the power to bring more students toward STEM fields, gender stereotypes about gaming ability may hinder this potential. To examine this issue, two studies were conducted to investigate whether stereotype threat induced in a gaming context would affect players’ game performance and their perceptions of STEM fields. The first study found that priming gender stereotypes influenced female participants’ video game performance as well as interest in and perceptions of STEM fields. A second study investigated this relationship through the use of both overtly gendered and nongendered forms of stereotype threat as well as avatar-induced identity salience. Interaction effects found between implicit/explicit stereotype threat and identity salience suggest a relationship between forms of stereotype threat and active self-concept.

Keywords

STEM video games stereotype threat gender

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Allaway

(2014. October 13). # Gamergate trolls aren’t ethics crusaders; They’re a hate group. Jezebel. https://jezebel.com/gamergate-trolls-arent-ethics-crusaders-theyre-a-hate-1644984010

American Association of University Women Educational Foundation Commission on Technology, Gender, and Teacher Education. (2000). Tech-Savvy: Educating girls in the new computer age. http://stelar.edc.org/sites/stelar.edc.org/files/TechSavvy.pdf

Aronson

Lustina

M. J.

Good

Keough

Steele

C. M.

Brown

(1999). When white men can’t do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 29-46. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1371

Behm-Morawitz

Hoffswell

Chen

S. W.

(2016). The virtual threat effect: A test of competing explanations for the effects of racial stereotyping in video games on players’ cognitions. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 19(5), 308-313. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0461

Behm-Morawitz

Mastro

(2009). The effects of the sexualization of female video game characters on gender stereotyping and female self-concept. Sex Roles, 61(11), 808-823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9683-8

Bhatt

Blakley

Mohanty

Payne

(2015). How media shapes perceptions of science and technology for girls and women. https://learcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/femSTEM1.pdf

Clark

A. C.

Ernst

J. V.

(2009). Gaming in technology education. Technology Teacher, 68(5), 21-26. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ829740

Collette

(2013, June 28). Games the key to girls’ STEM education. news@Northeastern. https://news.northeastern.edu/2013/06/28/girls-games/

Cote

A. C.

(2017). “I Can Defend Myself” women’s strategies for coping with harassment while gaming online. Games and Culture, 12(2), 136-155. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412015587603

10.

Crawford

Gosling

(2005). Toys for boys? Women’s marginalization and participation as digital gamers. Sociological Research Online, 10(1), 46-56. https://doi.org/10.5153/sro.1024

11.

Davies

P. G.

Spencer

S. J.

Quinn

D. M.

Gerhardstein

(2002). Consuming images: How television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1615-1628. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616702237644

12.

Dietz

T. L.

(1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games: Implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38(5), 425-442. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018709905920

13.

Dill

K. E.

Thill

K. P.

(2007). Video game characters and the socialization of gender roles: Young people’s perceptions mirror sexist media depictions. Sex Roles, 57(11-12), 851-864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9278-1

14.

Eastin

M. S.

(2006). Video game violence and the female game player: Self- and opponent gender effects on presence and aggressive thoughts. Human Communication Research, 32(3), 351-372. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2006.00279.x

15.

Entertainment Software Association. (2018). Essential facts about the computer and video game industry. https://www.theesa.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2019-Essential-Facts-About-the-Computer-and-Video-Game-Industry.pdf

16.

Fox

Tang

W. Y.

(2014). Sexism in online video games: The role of conformity to masculine norms and social dominance orientation. Computers in Human Behavior, 33(April), 314-320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.014

17.

Fredrickson

B. L.

Roberts

T. A.

Noll

S. M.

Quinn

D. M.

Twenge

J. M.

(1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 269-284. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.269

18.

Gervais

S. J.

Vescio

T. K.

Allen

(2011). When what you see is what you get: The consequences of the objectifying gaze for women and men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(1), 5-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310386121

19.

Giammarco

E. A.

Schneider

T. J.

Carswell

J. J.

Knipe

W. S.

(2015). Video game preferences and their relation to career interests. Personality and Individual Differences, 73, 98-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.036

20.

Granic

Lobel

(2013, November 25). Video games play may provide learning, health, social benefits, review finds. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2013/11/video-games

21.

Granic

Lobel

Engels

R. C. M. E

. (2014). The benefits of playing video games. American Psychologist, 69(1), 66-78. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034857

22.

Greenberg

B. S.

Sherry

Lachlan

Lucas

Holmstrom

(2010). Orientations to video games among gender and age groups. Simulation & Gaming, 41(2), 238-259. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878108319930

23.

Gunderson

E. A.

Ramirez

Levine

S. C.

Beilock

S. L.

(2012). The role of parents and teachers in the development of gender-related math attitudes. Sex Roles, 66(3), 153-166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9996-2

24.

Hakim

Kurman

Eshel

(2017). Stereotype threat and stereotype reactance: The effect of direct and indirect stereotype manipulations on performance of Palestinian citizens of Israel on achievement tests. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 48(5), 667-681. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022117698040

25.

Harris Interactive. (2011). STEM perceptions: Student and parent study. https://news.microsoft.com/download/archived/presskits/citizenship/docs/STEMPerceptionsReport.pdf

26.

Hathaway

(2014, October 10). What is Gamergate, and why? An explainer for non-geeks. Gawker. https://gawker.com/what-is-gamergate-and-why-an-explainer-for-non-geeks-1642909080

27.

Hill

Corbett

Rose

St. (2010). Why so few? Women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. American Association of University Women. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED509653

28.

Jenkins

Cassell

(2008). From quake girls to desperate housewives: A decade of gender and computer games. In Kafai

Y. B.

Heeter

Denner

Sun

J. Y.

(Eds.), Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat: New perspectives on gender and gaming (pp. 5-20). MIT Press.

29.

Kafai

Y. B.

Heeter

Denner

Sun

J. Y.

(2008). Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat: New perspectives on gender and gaming. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7477.001.0001

30.

Kain

(2014, September 4). GamerGate: A closer look at the controversy sweeping video games. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2014/09/04/gamergate-a-closer-look-at-the-controversy-sweeping-video-games/#650aca0434f8

31.

Kaye

L. K.

Pennington

C. R.

(2016). “Girls can’t play”: The effects of stereotype threat on females’ gaming performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 59(June), 202-209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.020

32.

Kray

L. J.

Reb

Galinsky

A. D.

Thompson

(2004). Stereotype reactance at the bargaining table: The effect of stereotype activation and power on claiming and creating value. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(4), 399-411. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203261884

33.

Kray

L. J.

Thompson

Galinsky

(2001). Battle of the sexes: Gender stereotype confirmation and reactance in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(6), 942-958. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.942

34.

Kuznekoff

J. H.

Rose

L. M.

(2013). Communication in multiplayer gaming: Examining player responses to gender cues. New Media & Society, 15(4), 541-556. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444812458271

35.

Leaper

Van

S. R.

(2008). Masculinity ideology, covert sexism, and perceived gender typicality in relation to young men’s academic motivation and choices in college. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9(3), 139-153. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.9.3.139

36.

Lee

J. E.

Nass

C. I.

Bailenson

J. N.

(2014). Does the mask govern the mind? Effects of arbitrary gender representation on quantitative task performance in avatar-represented virtual groups. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 17(4), 248-254. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2013.0358

37.

Logel

Walton

G. M.

Spencer

S. J.

Iserman

E. C.

von Hippel

Bell

A. E.

(2009). Interacting with sexist men triggers social identity threat among female engineers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(6), 1089-1103. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015703

38.

Maass

D’Ettole

Cadinu

(2008). Checkmate? The role of gender stereotypes in the ultimate intellectual sport. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(2), 231-245. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.440

39.

Mayo

M. J.

(2009). Video games: A route to large-scale STEM education? Science, 323(5910), 79-82. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1166900

40.

Morgan

C. S.

(1992). College students’ perceptions of barriers to women in science and engineering. Youth & Society, 24(2), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X92024002006

41.

Mussweiler

Gabriel

Bodenhausen

G. V.

(2000). Shifting social identities as a strategy for deflecting threatening social comparisons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(3), 398-409. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.3.398

42.

Nguyen

H. H.

Ryan

A. M.

(2008). Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1314-1334. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012702

43.

Pennington

C. R.

Heim

Levy

A. R.

Larkin

D. T.

(2016). Twenty years of stereotype threat research: A review of psychological mediators. PLOS ONE, 11(1), Article e0146487. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146487

44.

Plunkett

(2012, November 27). Here’s a devastating account of the crap women in the games business have to deal with. In 2012. Kotaku. https://kotaku.com/heres-a-devastating-account-of-the-crap-women-in-the-ga-5963528

45.

Richard

G. T.

(2015). Intersecting vulnerabilities in game culture: The effects of inequities and stereotype threat on player confidence, identification and persistence across gender and race. In Proceedings of DiGRA: Diversity of play: Games-Cultures-Identities, Germany. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriela_Richard/publication/275771792_Intersecting_Vulnerabilities_in_Game_Culture_The_Effects_of_Inequities_and_Stereotype_Threat_on_Player_Confidence_Identification_and_Persistence_Across_Gender_and_Race/links/5546da700cf234bdb21dae11.pdf

46.

Richard

G. T.

Hoadley

C. M.

(2013). Investigating a supportive online gaming community as a means of reducing stereotype threat vulnerability across gender. In Proceedings of Games, Learning & Society (pp. 261-266). ETC Press.

47.

Rydell

R. J.

Boucher

K. L.

(2010). Capitalizing on multiple social identities to prevent stereotype threat: The moderating role of self-esteem. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(2), 239-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167209355062

48.

Sackett

P. R.

Ryan

A. M.

(2012). Concerns about generalizing stereotype threat research findings to operational high-stakes testing. In Inzlicht

Schmader

(Eds.), Stereotype threat: Theory, process, and application (pp. 249-263). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199732449.003.0016

49.

Scragg

Smith

(1998). A study of barriers to women in undergraduate computer science. In Proceedings of the twenty-ninth SIGCSE technical symposium on computer science education (pp. 82-86). SIGCSE. https://doi.org/10.1145/274790.273167

50.

Shapiro

J. R.

Neuberg

S. L.

(2007). From stereotype threat to stereotype threats: Implications of a multi-threat framework for causes, moderators, mediators, consequences, and interventions. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(2), 107-130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868306294790

51.

Shapiro

J. R.

Williams

A. M.

(2012). The role of stereotype threats in undermining girls’ and women’s performance and interest in STEM fields. Sex Roles, 66(3-4), 175-183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0051-0

52.

Smeding

(2012). Women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): An investigation of their implicit gender stereotypes and stereotypes’ connectedness to math performance. Sex Roles, 67(11-12), 617-629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0209-4

53.

Spencer

S. J.

Steele

C. M.

Quinn

D. M.

(1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 4-28. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1373

54.

Steele

C. M.

(1997). A threat in the air. How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613

55.

Steele

C. M.

Aronson

(1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797

56.

Stone

McWhinnie

(2008). Evidence that blatant versus subtle stereotype threat cues impact performance through dual processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(2), 445-452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2007.02.006

57.

Van Looy

Courtois

De Vocht

De Marez

. (2012). Player identification in online games: Validation of a scale for measuring identification in MMOGs. Media Psychology, 15(2), 197-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2012.674917

58.

Vermeulen

Núñez Castellar

Van Looy

(2014). Challenging the other: Exploring the role of opponent gender in digital game competition for female players. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 17(5), 303-309. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2013.0331

59.

Von Hippel

Issa

Stokes

. (2011). Stereotype threat: Antecedents and consequences for working women. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(2), 151-161. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.749

60.

Walton

G. M.

Cohen

G. L.

(2003). Stereotype lift. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(5), 456-467. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00019-2

61.

Walton

G. M.

Murphy

M. C.

Ryan

A. M.

(2015). Stereotype threat in organizations: Implications for equity and performance. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2(1), 523-550. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111322

62.

Weber

(2012). Gender differences in interest, perceived personal capacity, and participation in STEM-related activities. Journal of Technology Education, 24(1), 18-33. https://doi.org/10.21061/jte.v24i1.a.2

63.

Wheeler

S. C.

Demarree

K. G.

Petty

R. E.

(2007). Understanding the role of the self in prime-to-behavior effects: The active-self account. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(3), 234-261. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868307302223

64.

Wingfield

(2014, October 15). Feminist critics of video games facing threats in “GamerGate” campaign. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/16/technology/gamergate-women-video-game-threats-anita-sarkeesian.html

Stereotype Threat in a Video Game Context and Its Influence on Perceptions of Science,Technology,Engineering,and Mathematics (STEM): Avatar-Induced Active Self-Concept as a Possible Mitigator

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References