Abstract
In the context of internationalization of higher education in China, this essay analyzes some inherent differences between the
Introduction
Globalization has greatly impacted the design and implementation of higher education in China. 1 Internationalization has become a way to rejuvenate higher education institutions in response to globalization. 2 In term of internationalization, a broad range of strategies, initiatives and activities can be and have been undertaken by higher education institutions, including students’ and scholars’ international mobility, curriculum development, research collaboration, staff development. 3 Multiple stakeholders (administrators, faculty, staff, and students) within the Chinese higher education system have also adopted different educational policies and practices to survive and thrive in the global context. With increased activity in international scholarly exchange and the movement of young talent across borders, Chinese universities are being encouraged to re-think the goals, measures and outcomes of the internationalization process. In practical terms, universities in China have also developed a number of strategies for internationalization, such as bilingual educational courses, short-term overseas exchange programs, and international summer schools. These strategies have provided multiple platforms and opportunities to promote students’ knowledge and skills and to enrich students’ international experiences.
Compared with the increasing internationalization of the curriculum and its implementation in the
However, considering the inherent differences within, and the unique features of, liberal arts or humanities disciplines, the essence and demonstration of internationalization within the humanities might not be exactly the same as that in
Challenges in the Internationalization of Liberal Arts Education
The internationalization of the humanities disciplines has faced multiple challenges, especially compared with the
As observed in the literature, in Chinese higher education there are many fewer bilingual (Chinese and English) courses or courses taught in English among the disciplines in liberal arts than in the
The lag in bilingual teaching or teaching in English, the creation and publication of English textbooks, and the launching of international summer programs for disciplines in the humanities can be attributed to several possible reasons. Compared with the
In addition, some particular disciplines in the humanities might be better taught in the original language. For instance, for research work and studies on ancient Chinese literature, translation into or teaching in a second language can be especially cumbersome, and sometimes might even be regarded as impeding scholarly understanding of the deep meaning of the literature in the original language. As stated by Chen (pseudonyms are always used for the names in this report), a professor from the department of Chinese language and literature:
I think internationalization is an aim. For the disciplines of Chinese Literature, Chinese History, Chinese Philosophy, the key is to research our own materials. We cannot gear all the goals towards overseas. I think that’s wrong. . . . For example, compared with the aim of
In light of the above-mentioned reasons, we suspect the internationalization of the humanities disciplines should not be limited to teaching or communicating in a second language. Internationalization should embrace a broad conceptual foundation and therefore a functional framework that would encompass multiple aspects of internationalization, such as the awareness of internationalization among researchers, the inclusion of understanding of multiple perspectives, and research methods.
A Functional Model for Internationalization of Humanities Disciplines
Unlike the
The “3M model” refers to the internationalization of “Mind,” “Method,” and “Medium” dimensions.
The Internationalization of “Mind”
Openness to diverse perspectives within a global context
An awareness of multiple perspectives in a global context
An appreciation of multiple perspectives in a global context
Other possible changes towards “internationalization” at the ideological dimension
By the internationalization of mind, we contend that an openness in one’s mind to different perspectives in a global context constitutes a critical first step. Such openness allows researchers, administrators, and students to be aware of varied ideas, opinions, and evidence related to a particular topic, be it a particular historical event or a work of literature. By an active exposure to and an appreciation of varied ideas, opinions, or evidence, one may adopt multiple perspectives for thinking.
The Internationalization of “Method”
An understanding of multiple research methods from a global context
An incorporation of multiple research methods into one’s research
An incorporation of varied advanced teaching methods into one’s teaching
Any other changes towards internationalization in the methodological dimension
By the internationalization of method, we first acknowledge that there are different research methodologies related to a particular field or discipline within its unique historical and social context. Although a simple generalization of methods might not work as one would expect, an understanding of available research methods would allow an informed decision of the adoption of research methods. It may also permit the mixed usage of multiple research methods. By so doing, one gains additional insight to the research topic. Second, we emphasize the variety of teaching methods within different disciplines that vary according to different higher education systems or cultures. Such awareness and appreciation will permit a further step of testing and incorporating certain teaching methods to one’s particular domain.
The interrelation between the internationalization of mind and method should be noted. The internationalization of method requires the internationalization of mind as the prerequisite condition. Without the openness of mind, there will not be the opportunity for understanding multiple research methods.
The Internationalization of “Medium”
To adopt a second-language or a lingua franca in the communication of research related backgrounds, artifacts and findings, the teaching of knowledge, skills, etc. in a certain field, or other formats of scholarly communications
To construct a scholarly network (professional/personal connections, technological-based connections, e.g. websites links, or other media-based communicating methods) as a platform for information exchange
By the internationalization of medium, we first refer to the use of a second language, often English, in communicating one’s research or teaching. It also includes the use of a second-language in other formats of scholarly communications. Examples include the record of artifacts (films, pictures, etcetera). The internationalization of medium serves as the tool for different aspects of the internationalization of mind and method and therefore constitutes an indispensable role in the internationalization process. It allows the researchers to gain useful information from multiple resources in an effective and timely manner. It also serves as a way to gather and distribute accurate and in-depth information using the language of choice. The demonstration of internationalization is prevalent in many areas in the Chinese higher educational context, such as the introduction of original English textbooks in a Chinese higher education system; the establishment of international summer programs in China where English is used as the working language; and the creation of bilingual courses (English and Mandarin) at Chinese higher education institutions.
Second, we refer to different formats of international networks that serve as tools for increased communications. These can include professional networks, such as international organizations or associations, networking between individual scholars, and various formats that are technology-based. As for the usage of technology as a tool for internationalization, we mean e-resources such as websites.
The medium is important, but it is not the only means of implementing internationalization. Hereon, we will try to analyze the different aspects of internationalization based on the “3M model.”
Demonstrations of the 3M Model in the Internationalization of Humanities the Disciplines
Dimension of “Mind”
The internationalization of mind for faculty members may be demonstrated as follows,
To stay tuned to recent research findings and trends in their particular fields in a global context
To be open to different research traditions and theories in their particular disciplines and related disciplines in different historical and social contexts
To understand and appreciate different research traditions, theoretical frameworks that were built in different historical and social contexts
It is especially important for faculty members to exhibit the internationalization of mind. As key players in research, faculty members are mostly responsible for conducting innovative and informed research. Without being open to current research topics and the latest findings in respective fields in a global context, it is hard to conduct state-of-the art research. Without an appreciation of and the incorporation of different research traditions and theoretical frameworks under different historical and social contexts, one may miss important opportunities to enrich one’s own research work.
As indicated by Chen in our interviews:
For the humanities disciplines, we should have a strong tolerance, an open mind, to experience, to observe and accept others, the good stuff. Like what I mentioned about the traffic rules [this refers to an earlier comments on the
When asked about the impact of an overseas scholarly visit on his work back to China, he stated:
It (an overseas scholarly visit) definitely had certain influence on me. To some extent, it was an inspiration. I saw how foreign scholars lived their lives, and how they treated others. After I came back to China, I will surely have some change, because you have seen a more respectful, valued life, you will strive for the same direction. Say, you will be more responsible to your work, and be friendlier to students . . . Sometimes, you just need a role model, an example, once you saw it, it will inspire you. Overall, the scholarly visit had a very important positive impact on me. 13
Dimension of “Method”
To understand different research methodologies that were developed in different historical, cultural and social contexts
To appreciate the usage of different research methods and adopt choice one(s) for one’s own research work
To appreciate varied teaching methods that were used in different historical, cultural and social contexts
To adopt and/or incorporate new and appropriate teaching methods that were developed under different contexts
As the key players in academic research, faculty members need to be resourceful with and informed about different research methods. An understanding of different research methods that were developed in different historical, cultural and social contexts will enrich faculty members’ research “tool-box” so that faculty members can make an informed decision about their research methodologies.
As indicated by Chen,
In terms of research content, some western research methods are quite innovative. For example, some particular research methods and theories can be stronger than Chinese ones in terms of literature and Chinese studies. This is because Western culture pays close attention to theoretical development, which has brought about diversified methods. Sometimes, it is thought provoking. 14
Huang, a professor in the department of history, also mentioned:
We need to introduce many important academic findings to help us reconstruct the academic system. . . . The introduction would certainly include some thinking methods, because, there are many theoretical premises behind the results. That is, within these different opinions, there are different perspectives, they embody both the findings and the methods. 15
Moreover, one of the key functions of faculty members is the conservation of knowledge via teaching and communicating scholarly information to a large audience. Therefore, to appreciate varied teaching methods that were developed and used in other contexts will allow a preferable way for the distribution of information and the conservation of knowledge and skills in a particular field or discipline.
Dimension of “Medium”
As mentioned above, the demonstration of the internationalization of “medium” is quite prevalent across the higher education. For faculty members, some of the practical examples can be described as follows:
To communicate research findings in English or another language
To teach knowledge and skills in English or another language
To introduce/create/adopt English text books or text books in another language
To participate in other scholarly communications in English or a another language
To construct different networks (personal and professional connections) to facilitate professional communications
To make use of e-resources for gathering and exchanging information
Despite the prevalent usage of English as a second language in many disciplines in the Chinese higher educational context, it should be noted that for faculty members in some disciplines (for example Chinese literature), the use of English as the lingua franca can be difficult due to the inherent difficulties in specialized topics.
In addition to the use of a second language as the lingua franca for scholarly communication, the internationalization of the medium also includes the construction of different networks at the organizational and individual levels to promote scholarly exchange. The establishment of this type of network is of particular importance for enhancing internationalization. It is shown in many different formats, such as professional organizations, academic conferences, and professional or personal connections built though other venues. As suggested by Huang,
To attend conferences, on the one hand, is like a social, a more, say, establishing academic network; on the other hand, through that (attending a conference), it can help our research, for example, you have accumulated some academic results for a while, you need a way to summarize the results. Then, if you got an opportunity for international communication, it becomes a good channel to put it forward. 16
As indicated here, Huang notes the important role of professional conferences as a venue for establishing academic networks and for communicating the latest findings for one’s research work. The usage of a platform or what we considered as “medium” greatly promotes international communication.
In addition, thanks to technological advances, many other platforms have been developed and used for scholarly communications. Different web pages, links, blogs, and so on have seen tremendous impact in facilitating the process of internationalization.
Finally, we would like to highlight the feature of bi-direction or multi-direction for all three dimensions of the internationalization process, which is also a main theme that emerged in our interviews. Bi-direction or multi-direction, means that for a given higher educational system, this process of internationalization happens simultaneously along with that of its counterpart(s) under other cultural and social contexts. That is, for a given higher education system and for the stakeholders involved in the system they simultaneously experience internationalization in different dimensions. For example, while they adopt alternative teaching methods developed in another culture, stakeholders in other system(s) may also try to explore different teaching methods developed in the given system. As summarized by Deng, an administrator in charge of internationalization affairs in a college of humanities:
In the aspect of internationalization of humanities disciplines, on one hand, we learn from others; on the other hand, we demonstrate our research findings to others. I think our institute has shown both directions. 17
Thus, the bi-directional or bi-lateral feature of internationalization truly allows one to take advantage of and to benefit from multiple perspectives. As another example, take ancient Chinese poetry, for which an understanding of bi-direction or multi-direction internationalization would allow for an informed decision about which language to choose for scholarly communication considering the characteristics of the topic. Taking the feature of bi-direction or multi-direction into consideration, it would be helpful for one to find out the optimal choice for scholarly communication.
Strategies to Promote Internationalization in the Humanities Disciplines
Building upon the elaboration of the proposed “3M model,” in particular the critical roles of faculty members and possibly students, we propose several strategies to promote internationalization in the humanities disciplines.
The prevalent themes for enhancing the internationalization process lie in the promotion of various venues for scholarly exchange and communications. For a given higher education system, it can include sending visiting scholars (for example, professors, administrators, students) to overseas universities or institutions; to create positions (research, teaching or even service) for visiting scholars from abroad; to sponsor joint research projects across different institutions both domestic and from abroad; to hold bi-lateral or international conferences; to initiate short-term study programs for students; and many others. Here, we will discuss several of the strategies in more detail and provide alternative ideas to make full use of these different opportunities for enhancing the progress of internationalization.
First, short-term (ranging from several weeks to six months) and long-term (longer than six months) overseas scholarly visits for faculty and staff were shown to be beneficial for their professional development. As Chen pointed out, short-term and long-term scholarly visits allow faculty and staff to be more innovative, to gain exposure to state-of-the-art research topics and methods, to improve their capacities for research and teaching and therefore improve the quality for higher education. 18 In general, the benefits from study-abroad activities would allow a broader worldview and a renewal of one’s opinions and ideas. 19 In addition, these activities can help improve one’s academic capacities, the ability to gather and discern information, and to learn new knowledge and skills. 20 These advantages align very well with the “Mind” and “Method” dimensions of the “3M model” for internationalization. In addition, to couple the scholarly visits with an immersion in a different culture will also permit the improvement of language skills in particular, which agrees with the internationalization of “Medium” dimension. 21
As pointed out by Chen, our interviewee:
Most faculty and staff go abroad. This is the first step, an important step. The scholarly visit consists communications at all levels and aspects, not just in the academic realm. For (scholars in) the humanities disciplines, after living in another country for a certain period of time, you will find a reference system which will be beneficial for conducting research on our own culture. As a result, I suggest faculty and staff go abroad more often. . . . Although we now have more scholarly visit opportunities compared with previous years, it’s still not enough. It is better if every faculty can conduct some kind of scholarly visit every few years, maybe not a whole year, just half a year or even three months, it is helpful. 22
To achieve optimal results for a scholarly visit, it is essential to have a good match between faculty and staff and their target institutions for scholarly visits. As Deng stated in our interviews:
For disciplines such as ancient Chinese and Chinese literature, it’s very difficult for faculty members in these disciplines to conduct scholarly visits. In fact any subjects related to the ancient research might have similar difficulties. Because, sometimes, compared with
Deng believed that the faculty in said disciplines can only achieve a minimal outcome unless given a preferable match with the faculty of target institutions.
In addition to securing a preferable match for faculty members, the assessment and evaluation of the outcomes and experiences of the scholarly visits require particular attention. Despite the increasing popularity of scholarly visits among faculty members, the actual outcomes and experiences of these faculty members are rarely explored in depth. Further research is required to allow for a better understanding of faculty members’ different visiting experiences and therefore provide timely and effective feedback to improve these experiences.
Second, more Chinese universities are creating positions to attract visiting scholars from all over the world. These scholars are often offered opportunities to teach Chinese students. These courses and lectures have allowed the students to be exposed to English-based reading materials (textbooks, academic papers), expanded their scope of knowledge, and encouraged their learning of a second language, English in particular. Concerning the multiple benefits introduced by the visiting scholars, it is strongly encouraged to continue efforts in this vein.
Meanwhile, because of visiting professors’ strong focus on student teaching, there seems to be a lack of scholarly communication between visiting professors and local faculty members and staff as indicated by some of our interviewees. Therefore, we suggest that different measures be taken to promote the scholarly communication among the visiting scholars and local faculty members and staff in the department and college in general. By so doing, we expect a similar exchange of ideas, opinions and skills can again happen in the “Mind,” “Method,” and “Medium” dimensions, therefore enhancing the internationalization process.
Third, launching short-term exchange programs for students can also be an effective manner for promoting internationalization. As summarized by Liu, different international summer programs serve to expose students to state-of-the-art research, to scholarly communications between students and seasoned faculty members around the world, to share high-quality educational resources and to facilitate mobility in a large scholarly community. 24 Some leading universities, such as Peking University and Fudan University, have begun to launch international summer programs in the liberal arts. Built upon the strength of disciplinary research and teaching, international summer programs can serve as an innovative platform from which high-level bilingual courses, innovative teaching methods and effective methods of assessment could be actively applied to student learning. 25
Additional opportunities for enhancing internationalization among students take place in different formats. Besides the encounter with well-known professors and experts, international summer programs exposed students to cutting-edge research findings, diverse perspectives, and innovative teaching and learning approaches. Moreover, a variety of extracurricular activities, especially field trips and site visits can enrich students’ learning experiences. Through various learning activities such as workshops and group work, students enhanced their communication skills and improved their ability to adapt to a new environment. All these strategies and activities in one way or another may have promoted the internationalization of the said three dimensions of “Mind,” “Method,” and “Medium” for students.
In summary, considering the challenges facing the internationalization of the humanities disciplines, here we suggest several preliminary strategies and practical measures which could be useful. First, to create overseas scholarly exchange opportunities for faculty members to promote their global awareness and professional skills. The professional development of faculty members is especially important to the progress of internationalization in the humanities. Faculty members play an indispensable role in organizing teaching and learning activities. The increase of their global awareness and the development of teaching skills will have a direct impact on the implementation of teaching. Moreover, the increase in faculty members’ language skills may also help diversify the liberal arts curriculum and permit the incorporation of cross-cultural elements. This diversification can entail introducing English language based textbooks or involving international students in different learning activities. Second, introducing or inviting overseas faculty members to participate in teaching, research and service activities. Besides the current focus on exposing the students to the unique teaching styles of guest professors, additional efforts are needed to encourage the scholarly communications between invited faculty members and local faculty and staff to achieve preferable results. Thirdly, it is necessary to launch international programs for students or encourage short-term overseas exchange activities among students. Assessment and evaluation efforts are needed to further improve student engagement in said activities and therefore intensify their international learning experience. These and other possible measures may potentially help promote a holistic process of internationalization in the humanities.
Conclusion
There has been great interest in the internationalization of higher education in China. This essay analyzed some inherent differences between
Moreover, we highlight multiple strategies that could possibly promote the professional development of faculty members along the three specific dimensions, aligning the strategies with the working definitions within each dimension of the 3M model. In sum, we suggest that universities and multiple stakeholders should pay special attention to the professional development of faculty members in the increased awareness of internationalization among faculty members, enhanced appreciation and adoption of appropriate research and teaching methodologies, coupled with the preferable usage of language tools, varied professional networks or technology-based platforms that will greatly promote the internationalization process as a whole for a given higher educational system.
The functional model proposed here is a preliminary summary from interviews with faculty members and administrators in the humanities. It still requires additional data and is subject to further modifications. Nonetheless, we propose the model as a way to understand the different dimensions of the process of internationalization in the humanities disciplines.
Future research on this topic should probe more deeply into the quality assurance and the assessment dimensions of different internationalization efforts in the humanities disciplines. Further research on the assessment and evaluation of faculty, staff and students’ experiences in different formats of academic exchanges is necessary. Through timely and effective feedback, the cross-cultural exchange programs and activities that have proved to be a great stimulus to internationalization could be further improved in multiple ways and therefore permit further improvement in the internationalization of humanities disciplines in the long run.
Footnotes
5 Marijk C. Van der Wende, “Internationalization of Higher Education.”
9 Zhuang and Sun, “Obstacles to the implementation of bilingual teaching and corresponding solutions.”
10 Ministry of Education, “The work of graduate international summer programs” [Yanjiusheng guoji shuqi xuexiao gongzuo], Xuewei yu yanjiusheng jiaoyu, no. 1 (2005): 8-9.
11 Chen, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
12 Chen, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
13 Chen, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
14 Chen, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
15 Huang, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
16 Huang, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
17 Deng, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
18 Chen, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
19 Xufei Chen, “The variations and outcomes of the governmental policy on studying abroad since the reform and opening up in China” [Gaige kai fang yi lai da lu gong pai liu xue jiao yu zheng ce de yan bian ji cheng xiao], Fudan jiao yu lun tan 2, no. 3 (2004): 12-16.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Chen, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
23 Deng, in conversation with the authors, April 2015.
24 Shengnang Liu, “Summer Schools of Research-intensive Universities in a Chinese Context” [Woguo yanjiuxing daxue shuqi xuexiao xian zhuang yanjiu], Unpublished master’s thesis, Nanchang University, 2012.
25 Jiabin Zhu, Bo Yang, Bo, Qunqun Liu, and Bing Chen, Bing, “International summer programs: An innovative learning platform in a Chinese context,” Advancing teacher education and curriculum development through study abroad programs (2015): 233-249.