The Right to Language

Snow C. Hoefnagel-Höihle M. , “The Critical Period for Language Acquisition: Evidence from Second Language Learning,” Child Development 49, no. 4 (1978): 1114–1128.

Lenneberg E. , Biological Foundations of Language (New York: Wiley, 1967);

Woods B. T. Carey S. , “Language Deficits after Apparent Clinical Recovery from Childhood Aphasia,” Annals of Neurology 6, no. 5 (1979: 405–409;.

Martins I. P. , “Persistent Acquired Childhood Aphasia,” in Fabro F. , ed., Neurogenic Language Disorders in Children (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2004): At 231–251.

Shattuck R. , The Forbidden Experiment: The Story of the Wild Boy of Aveyron (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1980).

Curtiss S. , “Language as a Cognitive System: Its Independence and Selective Vulnerability,” in Otero C. , ed., Noam Chomsky: Critical Assessments: 4 (London: Routledge, 1994): At 211–255;.

Drury S. S. Theall K. P. Gleason M. M. Smyke A. T. Devivo I. Wong J. Y. Y. Fox N. A. Zeanah C. H. Nelson C. A. , “Telomere Length and Early Severe Social Deprivation: Linking Early Adversity and Cellular Aging,” Molecular Psychiatry 17, no. 7 (2011: 719–727.

Mayberry R. Fischer S. , “Looking through Phonological Shape to Lexical Meaning: The Bottleneck of Non-native Sign Language Processing,” Memory and Cognition 17, no. 6 (1989): 740–754;.

Newport E. , “Maturational Constraints on Language Learning,” Cognitive Science 14, no. 1 (1990: 11–28;.

Emmorey K. Corina D. , “Lexical Recognition in Sign Language: Effects of Phonetic Structure and Morphology,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 71, no. 3f (1990): 1227–1252;

Emmorey K. , “Repetition Priming with Aspect and Agreement Morphology in American Sign Language,” Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 20, no. 5 (1991: 365–388;.

Mayberry R. Eichen E. , “The Long-lasting Advantage of Learning Sign Language in Childhood: Another Look at the Critical Period for Language Acquisition,” Journal of Memory and Language 30, no. 4 (1991: 486–512;.

see Curtiss , supra note 4;.

Grimshaw G. Adelstein A. Bryden M. MacKinnon G. , “First-Language Acquisition in Adolescence: Evidence for a Critical Period for Verbal Language Development,” Brain and Language 63, no. 2 (1998: 237–255;.

Newport E. Bavelier D. Neville H. J. , “Critical Thinking about Critical Periods: Perspectives on a Critical Period for Language Acquisition,” in Dupoux E. , ed., Language, Brain, and Cognitive Development: Essays in Honor of Jacques Mehler (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001): At 481–502;.

among many.

For an overview and additional citations, see Humphries T. Kushalnagar P. Mathur G. Napoli D. J. Padden C. Rathmann C. Smith S. , “Cochlear Implants and the Right to Language: Ethical Considerations, Ideal Situation, and Practical Measures Toward Reaching the Ideal,” in Umat C. Tange R. A. , eds., Cochlear Implant Research Updates (InTech: 2012), available at <http://www.intechopen.com/books/cochlear-implant-research-updates/the-right-to-language-ethical-considerations-ideal-situation-and-practical-measures-toward-reachi> (last visited November 13, 2013);

Humphries T. Kushalnagar P. Mathur G. Napoli D. J. Padden C. Rathmann C. Smith S. , “Bilingualism: A Pearl to Overcome Certain Perils of Cochlear Implants,” Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology 21, no. 2 (2013).

For an overview and citations,

see Kushalnagar P. Mathur G. Moreland C. J. Napoli D. J. Osterling W. Padden C. Rathmann C. , “Infants and Children with Hearing Loss Need Early Language Access,” Journal of Clinical Ethics 21, no. 2 (2010): 143–154.

For an overview and citations,

see Humphries T. Kushalnagar P. Mathur G. Napoli D. J. Padden C. Rathmann C. Smith S. , “Language Acquisition for Deaf Children: Reducing the Harms of Zero Tolerance to the Use of Alternative Approaches,” Harm Reduction Journal 9, no. 16 (2012), available at <http://www.harmreductionjournal.com/content/9/1/16> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Mesch J. , Tactile Sign Language: Turn Taking and Question in Signed Conversations of Deaf-Blind People (Camarillo, CA: Signum, 2001).

Newport E. Supalla T. , “A Critical Period Effect in the Acquisition of a Primary Language” (unpublished manuscript from University of Rochester, 1987);

Johnson J. S. Newport E. , “Critical Period Effects in Second Language Learning: The Influence of Maturational State on the Acquisition of English as a Second Language,” Cognitive Psychology 21, no. 1 (1989): 60–99;.

see Newport , supra note 5;.

Galvan D. , “Differences in the Use of American Sign Language Morphology by Deaf Children: Implication of Parents and Teachers,” American Annals of the Deaf 144, no. 4 (1999: 320–324;.

Boyes Braem P. , “Rhythmic Temporal Patterns in the Signing of Deaf Early and Late Learners of Swiss German Sign Language,” Language and Speech 42, nos. 2–3 (1999: 177–208;.

Helmuth L. , “From the Mouths (and Hands) of Babes,” Science 293, no. 5536 (2001: 1758–1759;.

Singleton J. Newport E. , “When Learners Surpass Their Models: The Acquisition of American Sign Language from Inconsistent Input,” Cognitive Psychology 49, no. 4 (2004: 370–407;.

Morford J. Hänel-Faulhaber B. , “Homesigners as Late Learners: Connecting the Dots from Delayed Acquisition in Childhood to Sign Language Processing in Adulthood,” Language and Linguistics Compass 5, no. 8 (2011: 535–537;.

among many.

Chamberlain C. Mayberry R. , “Theorizing about the Relation between American Sign Language and Reading,” in Chamberlain C. Morford J. Mayberry R. , eds., Language Acquisition by Eye (Mahwah, NJ: Earlbaum, 2000): At 221–259;.

Goldin-Meadow S. Mayberry R. , “How do Profoundly Deaf Children Learn to Read?” Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 16, no. 4 (2001): 221–228;.

Moores D. , “Print Literacy: The Acquisition of Reading and Writing Skills,” in Moores D. Martin D. , eds., Deaf Learners: Developments in Curriculum and Instruction (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 2006): At 41–55;.

Allen T. E. Hwang Y. Stansky A. , “Measuring Factors That Predict Deaf Students' Reading Abilities: The VL2 Toolkit Project Design and Early Findings,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of College Educators of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing, New Orleans, LA, March 2009;.

among many.

Schick B. Marschark M. Spencer P. , Advances in the Sign Language Development of Deaf Children (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

See Humphries , supra note 8.

Newport E. Meier R. , “The Acquisition of American Sign Language,” in Slobin D. I. , ed., The Cross-Linguistic Study of Language Acquisition (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1985): At 881–938;.

Petitto L. A. Marentette P. F. , “Babbling in the Manual Mode: Evidence for the Ontogeny of Language,” Science 251, no. 5000 (1991: 1493–1496;.

Meier R. P. , “Language Acquisition by Deaf Children,” American Scientist 79, no. 1 (1991: 60–70.

Joint Committee on Infant Hearing, 1994 Position Statement, available at <http://www.jcih.org/JCIH1994.pdf> (last visited November 6, 2013).

National Conference of State Legislatures, “Newborn Hearing Screening Laws,” available at <http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/newborn-hearing-screening-state-laws.aspx>; <http://search.asha.org/default.aspx?q=newborn%20hearing%20screening%20laws> (both last visited November 13, 2013).

Institute for Educational Equity & Opportunity, Education in the 50 States: A Deskbook of the History of State Constitutions and Laws about Education (Washington, D.C. and Philadelphia: IFEEO, 2008).

See Appendix 1, in particular.

For a list of state rulings on this issue, see <http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/brown_app.pdf> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Association for Retarded Children v. Pennsylvania, 334 F. Supp. 1257, 1257 (E.D. Pa. 1971).

347 U.S. 482 (1954).

334 F. Supp. 1257, 1260 (E.D. Pa. 1971).

348 F. Supp. 866, 875 (D.D.C. 1972).

University of Northern Colorado, Laws/Regulation Related to Educational Interpreting, available at <http://www.unco.edu/doit/Resources/Updated%20StateInterpQual%204–05.pdf> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Chen A. H. Youdelman M. K. Brooks J. , “The Legal Framework for Language Access in Healthcare Settings: Title VI and Beyond,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 22, supp. 2 (November 2007): 362–367, available at <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2150609> (last visited November 6, 2013).

San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1972);

also Plyler v. Doe, 457 U.S. 202 (1982).

473 U.S. 432 (1985).

See Mills v. Board of Education, 348 F. Supp. 866 (D.D.C. 1972).

See IDEA 04, available at <http://www2.ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/idea2004.html> (last visited November 6, 2013).

IDEA, Title I, Part B, § 612 (a) (1).

IDEA, Title I, Part B, § 1414 (d) (3).

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 29 U.S.C. § 794, available at <http://www.dol.gov/oasam/regs/statutes/sec504.htm#.UH7VW8VZXSg> (last visited November 6, 2013).

34 C.F.R. § 104.4 and 104.21.

42 U.S.C. § 12101–12213, available at <http://www.accessboard.gov/guidelines-and-standards/buildings-and-sites/about-the-ada-standards> (last visited November 13, 2013).

Schwartz M. A. , “Deaf Patients, Doctors, and the Law: Compelling a Conversation about Communication,” Florida State University Law Review 35, no. 4 (2008): 947–1002;.

and for access to “a nursery, elementary, secondary, undergraduate, or postgraduate private school, or other place of education,” see ADA, Title III, § 301.

ADA, Title IV, § 401.

ADA, Title IV, § 402.

ADA, Title V, § 2.

2004 outline of the purpose for Part D of the IDEA, available at <http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/PL108–446.pdf> (last visited November 13, 2013).

2006 discussion of IDEA protection of overall communication rights of deaf children and adults, available at <http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/IDEA2004regulations.pdf> (last visited November 13, 2013).

Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974).

Civil Rights Act (1964), available at <http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=97> (last visited August 14, 2013).

Alexander v. Sandoval, 532 U.S. 275 (2001).

See Chen , supra note 23.

(EO) 13166, Improving Access to Services for Persons with Limited English Proficiency (2000).

National Health Law Program, Final Comments on OCR's LEP Guidance, available at <http://www.healthlaw.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=331:final-comments-on-ocrs-lep-guidance&catid=45> and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “Civil Rights,” available at <http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/civilrights/resources/specialtopics/lep/index.html> (both last visited November 6, 2013).

PPACA § 3506(a), 42 U.S.C.A. § 299b-36, available at <http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2010-title42/html/USCODE-2010-title42-chap6A-subchapVII-partD-subpart2sec299b-36.htm> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Teitelbaum J. Cartwright-Smith L. Rosenbaum S. , “Translating Rights into Access: Language Access and the Affordable Care Act,” American Journal of Law & Medicine 38, nos. 2–3 (2012): 348–373. Quote is from page 372.

1971 “Declaration of the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons,” available at <http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/t1drmrp.htm> (last visited November 13, 2013).

1975 “Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons,” available at <http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/RightsOfDisabledPersons.aspx> (last visited November 13, 2013).

United Nations, “The International Year of Disabled Persons 1981,” available at <http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/disiydp.htm> (last visited November 6, 2013).

United Nations, “World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons,” available at <http://www.un.org/disabilities/default.asp?id=23> (last visited November 6, 2013).

United Nations, “High Commissioner for Human Rights, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action,” available at <http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/(symbol)/a.conf.157.23.en> (last visited November 6, 2013).

United Nations, “The Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities,” available at <http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/dissre00.htm> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Id., at “Target Areas for Equal Participation,” available at <http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/dissre04.htm> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Id.

Id., at “Implementation Matters,” available at <http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/dissre05.htm> (last visited November 6, 2013).

The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education, available at <http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF> (last visited November 6, 2013).

For a timeline, see <http://www.usicd.org/index.cfm/crpdupdates>; for some of the conservative objections, see <http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/sep/11/dangers-of-undisabilities-treaty/> (both last visited November 6, 2013).

United Nations, 2011 Treaty Event: Towards Universal Participation and Implementation, available at <http://treaties.un.org/doc/source/events/2011/Press_kit/fact_sheet_1_english.pdf> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Jackson J. H. , Sovereignty, the WTO, and Changing Fundamentals of International Law, vol. 18 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

See Jackson , supra note 60, particularly at Chapter 3.

See paragraph 5 of <http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/4b0c449a9ab4ff72c12563ed0054f17d> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Rawls J. , A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971);

see also Rawls J. , The Law of Peoples (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999): At 115.

Roth B. , “State Sovereignty, International Legality, and Moral Disagreement,” Panel on ‘Questioning the Aspiration to Global Justice,’ Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association (2005): 24, available at <http://www.law.uga.edu/intl/roth.pdf> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Constitution U.S. , at Article 6, available at <http://www.usconstitution.net/xconst_A6.html> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Ware v. Hylton, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 199 (1796);

Hopkirk v. Bell, 7 U.S. (3 Cr.) 454 (1806);

Oyama v. California, 332 U.S. 633 (1948);

Sei Fujii v. State, 38 Cal. 2d 718, 242 P. 2d 617 (1952);

Clark v. Allen, 331 U.S. 503 (1947);

Kolovrat v. Oregon, 366 U.S. 187 (1961).

Foster v. Neilson, 27 U.S. (2 Pet.) 253, 314 (1829);

see Cooke J. , ed., The Federalist no. 75 (1961): 504–505.

Law and Legal Research website, “Treaties as Law of the Land,” available at <http://law.onecle.com/constitution/article-2/18-treaties-as-law-of-the-land.html> (last visited August 14, 2013).

Wright Q. , The Control of American Foreign Relations (New York: Macmillan, 1922): At 207;.

see also Henkin L. Glennon M. Rogers W. , Foreign Affairs and the Constitution (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 1972): At 156–162;.

and see Henkin L. , Foreign Affairs and the United States Constitution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977).

Chayes A. Chayes A. H. , The New Sovereignty: Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements 3 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996);

Franck T. M. , Fairness in International Law and Institutions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995);

Koh H. H. , “Why do Nations Obey International Law?” Yale Law Journal 106, no. 8 (1997): 2599–2659;.

Goldsmith J. Posner E. A. , “The New International Law Scholarship,” Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law (2006), available at <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=901991> (last visited November 6, 2013);

Besson S. Tasioulas J. , eds., The Philosophy of International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010);

Gilman D. , “A Bilingual Approach to Language Rights: How Dialogue between US and International Human Rights Law May Improve the Language Rights Framework,” Harvard Human Rights Journal 24, no. 1 (2011: 1–70.

U.S. Government Printing Office, Enumerate Rights, available at <http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CONAN-2002/pdf/GPO-CONAN-2002-9-10.pdf> (last visited November 6, 2013).

Warren S. D. Brandeis L. D. , “The Right to Privacy,” Harvard Law Review 4, no. 5 (1890): 193–220.

381 U.S. 479 (1965).

Searle J. , The Construction of Social Reality (New York: The Free Press, 1995): At 70.

For elaboration, see Trovato S. , “A Stronger Reason for the Right to Sign Languages,” Sign Language Studies 13, no. 2 (2013): 401–422;.

and for a bio-ethical, legal slant on this issue, see Oullette A. , “Hearing the Deaf: Cochlear Implants, the Deaf Community, and Bioethical Analysis,” Valparaiso University Law Review 45, no. 3 (2011): 1244–1268.

For several pointed examples of the need to such advocacy, see Siegel L. M. , The Human Right to Language (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 2008).

Moores D. , Educating the Deaf: Psychology, Principles, and Practices (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2001).

Yoshinaga-Itano C. , “Achieving Optimal Outcomes from EHDI,” The ASHA Leader (September 20, 2011), available at <http://www.asha.org/Publications/leader/2011/110920/Achieving-Optimal-Outcomes-From-EHDI.htm> (last visited November 6, 2013).

As recently argued in Knoors H. Marschark M. , “Language Planning for the 21st Century: Revisiting Bilingual Language Policy for Deaf Children,” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 17, no. 3 (2012: 291–305.

See suggestions in Blankmeyer Burke T. Kushalnagar P. Mathur G. Napoli D. J. Rathmann C. VanGilder K. , “The Language Needs of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Infants and Children: Information for Spiritual Leaders and Communities,” Journal of Religion, Disability & Health 15, no. 3 (2011: 272–295;.

and see suggestions in Humphries et al., supra note 6.

See Kushalnagar , supra note 7;.

Humphries , supra note 6;.

Humphries , supra note 8.

See Siegel , supra note 76.

European Union of the Deaf, “EUD Shop,” available at <http://www.eud.eu/EUD_Publications-i-596.html> (last visited November 6, 2013);

Krausneker V. Wilcox S. E. Armstrong D. F. , “Language Policies and the Deaf Community,” in Spolsky B. , ed., Cambridge Handbook of Language Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012): At 374–395;.

Krausneker V. , “On the Legal Status of Sign Languages: A Commented Compilation of Resources,” Current Issues of Language Planning 10, no. 3 (August 2009): 351–354.

May S. , “Language Rights: The ‘Cinderella’ Human Right,” Journal of Human Rights 10, no. 3 (2011): 265–289, at 265;.

and for the benefits of linguistic inclusion, see Rodriguez C. M. , “Language and Participation,” California Law Review 94, no. 3 (May 2006): 687–767.

European Union of the Deaf, “Brussels Declaration,” available at <http://www.eud.eu/Brussels_Declaration-i-305.html> (last visited November 6, 2013).

World Federation of the Deaf, “Human Rights,” available at <http://wfdeaf.org/human-rights> (last visited November 6, 2013).