Toxic Legacy: Mustard Gas in the Sea around Us

Brophy L. P. Miles W. O. Cochrane R. C. , The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field (Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2005 [reprint of Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1959]): At 62; Pechura C. M. Rall D. P. , eds., Veterans at Risk: The Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993): At 4–5, 22.

William T. [Tom] Brock quoted in Bull J. M. R. , “Burnt on a Barge,” Daily Press, Newport News, Virginia, November 3, 2005, available at <http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/dailypress/access/921547921.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Nov+3%2C+2005&author=John+M.R.+Bull+jbull%40dailypress.com+%7C+247-4768&pub=Daily+Press&edition=&startpage=A.l&desc=MEMORIES+OF+MUSTARD+GAS+BURNT+ON+A+BARGE> (last visited November 23, 2010; pay access only). See additional stories on mustard gas from the Daily Press by J. M. R. Bull in “Special Report, Part 1: The Deadliness Below,” October 30, 2005; “Special Report, Part 2: The Deadliness Below,” October 31, 2005; “Decades of Dumping Chemical Arms Leave a Risky Legacy,” November 3, 2005, and “House to Probe Chemical Dumping,” November 13, 2005, available at <http://www.dailypress.com/news/dp-chemdumping-stories,0,4442836.storygallery> (last visited November 23, 2010).

“Army Says Gases Not ‘Tide’ Cause,” The Evening Independent, St. Petersburg, Florida, August 25, 1947: At 11, available at <http://news.google.ca/newspapers?nid=PZE8UkGerEcC&dat=19470825&printsec=frontpage> (last visited November 23, 2010); Brophy , supra note 1, at 431.

Brophy , supra note 1, at 387, 431. American chemical warfare agents included mustard gas, lewisite, nitrogen mustard, chloroacetophenone (tear gas), phosgene, adamsite, hydrogen cyanide, and cyanogen chloride.

Russell E. , War and Nature: Fighting Humans and Insects with Chemicals from World War I to Silent Spring (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Hamblin J. , Poison in the Well: Radioactive Waste in the Oceans at the Dawn of the Nuclear Age (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2009). On environment and health, see Mitman G. , Breathing Space: How Allergies Shape Our Lives and Landscapes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007).

Hamblin , id, at 2; Carton G. Jagusiewicz A. , “Historic Disposal of Munitions in U.S. and European Coastal Waters,” Marine Technology Society Journal 43, no. 4 (2009): 16–32, at 21 and 24.

Brophy , supra note 1, at 62, see also 64–69, 74, 387; Vilensky J. A. Sinish P. R. , “The Dew of Death,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 60, no. 2 (2004): 54–60, at 54–55, 57.

Bryden J. , Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War, 1937–1947 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1989); Freeman K. , “The Unfought Chemical War,” The Bulletin of Atomic Scientists 47, no. 10 (1991): 30–39; Goodwin B. , Keen as Mustard: Britain's Horrific Chemical Warfare Experiments in Australia (Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland Press, 1998); Evans R. , Gassed: A History of British Chemical Warfare Experiments on Humans (London: House of Stratus, 2000). See also Avery D. H. , The Science of War: Canadian Scientists and Allied Military Technology During the Second World War (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998) and the documentary films Secret War: Odyssey of Suffield Volunteers (Insight Film and Video Productions, Canada, 2001) and Keen as Mustard: The Story of Top Secret Chemical Warfare Experiments (Yarra Bank Films, Australia, 1989).

Smith S. L. Mawdsley S. , “Proving Ground: Alberta's Role in U.S. Health Policy for Soldiers and School Children at Mid-Twentieth Century,” Canadian Perspectives on US Policy: Essays from a US Policy Research Workshop, ed. by Smith C. (Edmonton: Institute for United States Policy Studies, 2007): 127–141; Smith S. L. , “Mustard Gas and American Race-Based Human Experimentation in World War II,” Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics 36, no. 3 (2008): 517–521.

Kleber B. E. Birdsell D. , The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat (Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2003, reprint of 1966 edition): ix.

Harris R. Paxman J. , A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare (NY: Random House, 2002 edition, original publication 1982): 121–124; Pechura Rall , eds., supra note 1, at 43–44.

Brophy , supra note 1, at 240, 425, 430.

Id., at 62, 387, 430 note 60.

Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2008, March Status Report of the Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Chapter 13 – Previous Audits of Responses to Environmental Petitions – Military Dumpsites: 35, available at <www.oag-bvg.gc.ca> (last visited November 23, 2010); Bryden , supra note 8, at 11–13.

Department of Defense, U.S. Army Research, Development, and Engineering Command, Off-shore Disposal of Chemical Agents and Weapons Conducted by the United States (Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland: Historical Research and Response Team, Corporate Information Office, March 29, 2001): 1–15, available at <www.dailypress.com/media/acrobat/2005-10/20152941.pdf> (last visited November 25, 2010); Bull , supra note 2.

Brewer P. Nakayama N. , “What Lies Beneath: A Plea for Complete Information,” Environmental Science and Technology 42, no. 5 (2008): 1394–1399, at 1394–1399, and table 1, 1397.

Harris Paxman , supra note 11, at 110.

Cousteau J. Y. , The Silent World (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1953); Zronik J. , Jacques Cousteau: Conserving Underwater Worlds (N.Y.: Crabtree Publishing, 2007): At 5.

Rachel Carson, quoted in Lear L. , Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature (New York: Owl Books, Henry Holt and Company, 1997): At 214.

Carson R. , The Sea Around Us (New York: Signet Science Library Book, 1961): At vii (i960 preface).

Lear , supra note 19, at 204, 228.

Id., at 206, 215, 217.

Id., at 221.

Carson , supra note 20, at x.

Id., at x-xi.

Id., at xii.

Talen M. , Ocean Pollution (San Diego: Lucent Books, 1991): At 16, 43.

Wesley Chisholm J. Director, Buried at Sea (National Film Board of Canada, 2006).

Long T. P. , “A Global Perspective on Underwater Munitions,” Marine Technology Society Journal 43, no. 4 (2009): 5–10; see also Brewer Nakayama , supra note 16, at 1397.

Bull , supra note 2.

Kehoe M. , Petition 50A, Office of the Auditor General of Canada, petition received April 2, 2002, available at <www.oag-bvg.gc.ca> (last visited November 25, 2010).

Warfare Agent Disposal Project, Canadian Department of National Defense, June 16 2008. Specific webpages no longer available on the website, previously found at <www.forces.gc.ca>. See Backgrounder, Warfare Agent Disposal Project, Department of National Defence, March 31, 2003, available at <www.forces.gc.ca> (last visited November 25, 2010).

Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2008 March Status Report of the Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Chapter 13.

Carson , supra note 20, at 48–62.

Talen , supra note 27, at 78–80; Census of Marine Life, available at <www.coml.org> (last visited November 25, 2010).

Kirsch S. , “Watching the Bombs Go Off: Photography, Nuclear Landscapes, and Spectator Democracy,” Antipode 29, no. 3 (1997): 227–255.

MEDEA, program of the CIA, “Ocean Dumping of Chemical Munitions: Environmental Effects in Arctic Seas,” May 1997, page 2.2, available at <www.foia.cia.gov> (last visited November 25, 2010); Brewer Nakayama , supra note 16, at 1395.

MEDEA, id., at 8–1, 10–13.