PhillipsR. T. M., “The Psychiatrist as Evaluator: Conflicts and Conscience,”New York Law School Law Review41 (1996): 189–199, at 194.
2.
KatzD. L., “Note, Perry v. Louisiana: Medical Ethics on Death Row: Is Judicial Interveniton Warranted?”Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics4, no. 3 (1991): 707–729, at 716.
3.
Id., at 718.
4.
Id., at 716.
5.
Id., at 716.
6.
MossmanD., “The Psychiatrist and Execution Competency: Fording Murky Ethical Waters,”Case Western Reserve Law Review43 (1992): 1, at 30.
7.
See Katz, supra note 2, at 720.
8.
Id., at 721.
9.
See Mossman, supra note 6, at 27.
10.
HeilbrunK., “The Debate on Treating Individuals Incompetent for Execution,”American Journal of Psychiatry149 (1992): 596–605, at 598.
11.
JudgesD. P., “The Role of Mental Health Professionals in Capital Punishment: An Exercise in Moral Disengagement,”Houston Law Review41 (Summer 2004): 515–611.
12.
Id.
13.
See DubberM. D., “The Pain of Punishment,”Buffalo Law Review44, no. 2 (1996): 545–611, at 580 (arguing that “virtually everyone who actually participates in the system of capital punishment, from the capital sentencing jurors to the state trial and appellate judges, to their federal counterparts, and on to the governor, the warden, the physician, and the executioner, struggles with the fundamental inhibition against inflicting the always physical violence of execution”). Refer to Part IV.A infra.
14.
Refer to Part IV.B infra.
15.
Refer to Part IV.C infra.
16.
Refer to Part IV.D infra.
17.
Refer to Part IV.E infra.
18.
Refer to Part IV.F infra.
19.
PhillipsR. T. M., “The Psychiatrist as Evaluator: Conflicts and Conscience,”New York Law School Law Review41, no. 1 (1996): 189–199, at 194.
20.
Id., at 192.
21.
BonnieR. J., “Healing-Killing Conflicts: Medical Ethics and the Death Penalty,”Hastings Center Report20 (1990): 12, at 13.
22.
See Mossman, supra note 6, at 48.
23.
Id.
24.
JenkinsR. K., “Comment, Fit to Die: Drug-Induced Competency for the Purpose of Execution,”Southern Illinois University Law Journal20 (1995): 149, 171.
25.
KatzD. L., “Perry v. Louisiana: Medical Ethics on Death Row-Is Judicial Intervention Warranted?,”Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics4, no. 3 (1991): 707–729, at 718.
26.
Id., at 713.
27.
See Katz, supra note 2, at 714.
28.
AppelbaumP. S., “Competence to Be Executed: Another Conundrum for Mental Health Professionals,”Hospital & Community Psychiatry37, no. 7 (1986): 682–684, at 683.
29.
FreedmanA. M.HalpernA. L., “A Crisis in the Ethical and Moral Behavior of Psychiatrists,”Current Opinion in Psychiatry11, no. 1 (1998): 1–15.
30.
See Mossman, supra note 6, at 44.
31.
Id., at 44.
32.
Id., at 32.
33.
Id., at 34.
34.
McCoy DaughertyK., Comment, ‘“Synthetic Sanity’: The Ethics and Legality of Using Psychotropic Medications to Render Death Row Inmates Competent for Execution,”Journal of Contemporary Health Law & Policy17 (2001): 715–735, at 724.
35.
See Bonnie, supra note 27, at 13.
36.
Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, American Medical Association, “Council Report: Physician Participation in Capital Punishment,”JAMA270, no. 3 (1993): 365–368, at 365 [Hereinafter CEJA Report].
37.
CurranW. J.CasscellsW., “The Ethics of Medical Participation in Capital Punishment by Intravenous Injection,”New England Journal of Medicine302 (1980): 226–230, at 227 (quoting ReiserS., ed., Ethics in Medicine: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Concerns 5 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1977]).
38.
See CasscellsW.CurranW. J., “Doctors, the Death Penalty, and Lethal Injections: Recent Developments,”New England Journal of Medicine307, no. 24 (1982): 1532–1533, at 1532.
39.
HortonN. S., “Comment, Restoration of Competency for Execution: Furiosus Solo Furore Punitur,”Southwestern Journal of Law44 (1990): 1191, 1212.
40.
Id., at 1212–1213; BonnieR. J., “Dilemmas in Administering the Death Penalty: Conscientious Abstention, Professional Ethics and the Needs of the Legal System,”Law and Human Behavior14, no. 1 (1990): 67–90, at 83–84.
41.
ApplebaumP., “The Parable of the Forensic Psychiatrist: Ethics and the Problem of Doing Harm,”International Journal of Law & Psychiatry13 (1990): 249, at 256.
42.
See Applebaum, supra note 28, at 683.
43.
EwingC. P., “Diagnosisng and Treating Insanity on Death Row Legal and Ethical Perspectives,”Behavorial Sciences & Law5 (1987): 175, 183–184.
44.
See Bonnie, supra note 21, at 83; HeilbrunK., “The Debate on Treating Individuals Incompetent for Execution,”American Journal of Psychiatry149 (1992): 596–605, at 601, 604.
45.
Id. (Heibrun), at 598.
46.
Id.
47.
Ford v. Wainwright, 477 U.S. 399 (1986) (plurality).
48.
Id., at 401.
49.
Id.
50.
Id.
51.
Id., at 402.
52.
Id., at 402–403.
53.
Id., at 403.
54.
Id.
55.
Id., at 404.
56.
Id.
57.
Id.
58.
Id., at 404–405.
59.
Id., at 406.
60.
Id. (quoting Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86, 101 (1958) (plurality)).
61.
Id., at 407.
62.
Id.
63.
Id.
64.
Id., at 409.
65.
Id., at 407.
66.
Id.
67.
Id., at 409.
68.
Id.
69.
Id., at 410.
70.
Id., at 410–413.
71.
Id., at 411.
72.
Id., at 417.
73.
Id., at 415–416.
74.
Id., at 418.
75.
Id.
76.
Panetti v. Quarterman, 127 S.Ct. 2842 (Jan. 5, 2007).
77.
Id., at 2848; Panetti v. Cockrell, 73 Fed. Appx. 78, 78 (5th Cir. 2003) (unpublished).
Id.; see Amnesty International, supra note 78, at 5.
82.
Id.
83.
Panetti, 127 S.Ct. at 2849.
84.
See Amnesty International, supra note 78, at 3–4.
85.
Id., at 6–7
86.
Id., at 8; AlvoradoSonja, Panetti's estranged wife and daughter of his victims, called the trial “a circus” and noted that “there was lots the jury did not know about Scott and his mental illness” in a 1999 affidavit (Sonja Alvorado Affidavit, August 10, 1999).
87.
Panetti, 127 S.Ct. at 2849; see Amnesty International, supra note 78, at 10
88.
Id., at 10–11.
89.
Id., at 2859.
90.
Id., at 2862 (“A prisoner's awareness of the State's rationale for an execution is not the same as a rational understanding of it. Ford does not foreclose inquiry into the latter”).
91.
Id., at 2860.
92.
Sell v. United States, 539 U.S. 166, 169 (2003).
93.
Id., at 171.
94.
Id.
95.
Washington v. Harper, 494 U.S. 210, 213 (1990).
96.
Id.
97.
Id., at 214.
98.
Id., at 220 (quoting Mills v. Rogers, 457 U.S. 291, 299 (1982)).
99.
Id.
100.
Id., at 221.
101.
Id., at 222.
102.
Id., at 224–225 (1990); see Horton, supra note 2, at 1208.
103.
Harper, 494 U.S. at 225.
104.
Id., at 225–226.
105.
Id., at 227
106.
Id., at 228.
107.
State v. Perry, 610 So. 2d 746 (La. 1992).
108.
Id., at 748.
109.
Id.
110.
Id.
111.
Id.
112.
Id.
113.
Id.
114.
State v. Perry, 543 So. 2d 487 (La. 1989).
115.
Perry v. Louisiana, 494 U.S. 1015 (1990).
116.
Perry v. Louisiana, 498 U.S. 38 (1990).
117.
JenkinsR. K., Comment, “Fit to Die: Drug-Induced Competency for the Purpose of Execution,”Southern Illinois University Law School20 (1995): 149–179, at 160.
118.
State v. Perry, 610 So. 2d 746, 747 (La. 1992). It is important to note that the Perry decision relied on the Louisiana Constitution, not the United States Constitution. Id.
119.
Id., at 751.
120.
Id., at 751–752.
121.
Id., at 752.
122.
Id.
123.
Id.
124.
Id.
125.
Id., at 753.
126.
Id.
127.
Id.
128.
Id., at 754.
129.
Id., at 755.
130.
Id.
131.
Id., at 747
132.
Singleton v. Norris, 319 F.3d 1018 (8th Cir. 2003); 540 U.S. 832 (2003) (denying certiroari).
133.
Id., at 1020.
134.
Id.
135.
Id., at 1021.
136.
Id.
137.
Id., at 1022.
138.
Id., at 1024.
139.
Id., at 1025.
140.
Id.Arguably, Sell requires that the State bear the burden of demonstrating that there is no less intrusive means of achieving its objective, not the defendant as the Eighth Circuit suggests.
141.
Id., at 1026.
142.
Id.
143.
Id.
144.
Id.
145.
Id., at 1026–1027
146.
See Katz, supra note 2, at 720.
147.
Id., at 718.
148.
Id., at 716.
149.
Id., at 716.
150.
See Mossman, supra note 6, at 30.
151.
See Heilbrun, supra note 44, at 598.
152.
Gregg BlocheM., “Uruguay's Military Physicians: Cogs in a System of State Terror,”JAMA255, no. 20 (1986): 2788–2793.
